Great arteries contribution in orthostasis cardiovascular adaptation;Contribuição dos grandes vasos arteriais na adaptação cardiovascular a ortostase

Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia

Volumn 87, Issue 2, 2006, Pages 209-222

  Neto, Jorge Elias ^a,b  

^a FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF ESPÍRITO SANTO   (Brazil)

^b NONE   (Brazil)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTERY COMPLIANCE; AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM; BLOOD FLOW; CARDIOVASCULAR FUNCTION; CAROTID ARTERY; GRAVITATIONAL STRESS; GREAT BLOOD VESSEL; HEMODYNAMICS; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; MICROGRAVITY; NONHUMAN; PRESSORECEPTOR REFLEX; PULSE WAVE; REVIEW; STANDING; SUPINE POSITION; SYNCOPE;

EID: 33748426024     PISSN: 0066782X     EISSN: 16784170     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1590/s0066-782x2006001500023     Document Type: Review

References (131)

1. Haynes FW, Ellis LB, Weiss S. Pulse wave velocity and arterial elasticity in arterial hypertension, arteriosclerosis, and related conditions. Am Heart J. 1936; 11: 385-401.
2. Smit AA, Halliwill JR, Low PA, Wieling W. Pathological basis of orthostatic hypotension in autonomic failure. J Physiol. 1999; 519: 1-10.
3. Sheldon R, Morillo C, Krahn A. Management of vasovagal syncope: Expert Ver Cardiovasc Ther. 2004; 2: 915-23.
4. Kapoor WN. Syncope. N Engl J Med. 2000; 343 (25): 1856-62.
5. Guyton AC, Jones CE, Coleman TG. Circulatory Physiology: Cardiac Out-put and Its Regulation. Philadelphia: Saunders WB Co.; 1973.
6. Goulon M, Raphael JC, Hervé F, Janier M. Adaptation et inadaptation posturale de la pression artérielle. Ann Méd Interne. 1980; 131: 475-82.
7. Abitbol MM. Effect of posture and locomotion on energy expenditure. Am J Phys Anthropol. 1988; 77: 191-99.
8. Abitbol MM. Variations in blood supply allocations for quadrupedal and for bipedal posture and locomotion. Am Phys Anthropol. 1989; 80: 239-58.
9. Akselrod S, Oz O, Greenberg M, Keselbrener L. Autonomic response to change of posture among normal and mild-hypertensive adults: investigation by time-dependent spectral analysis. J Autonomic Nervous System. 1997; 64: 33-43.
10. Streeten DHP, Scullard TF. Excessive gravitational blood pooling caused by impaired venous tone is the predominant non-cardiac mechanism of orthostatic intolerance. Clinical Science. 1996; 90: 277-85.
11. Hicks JW, Badeer HS. Gravity and the circulation: "open" vs. "closed" systems. Am J Physiol. 1992; 262: R725-32.
12. Akkerman EM, Karemaker JM, Strackee J. Computer modelling the dynamics of the circulation under gravitational stress. Compact Analysis of Cardiovascular Signals. Ed. M. Di Rienzo; Amsterdam: IOS Press, 1995.
13. Naschitz JE, Mazov I, Eridzhanyan K, Keren D, Rennert HS, Yeshurun D. Hypotensive reactions on passive head-up tilt testing of hypertensive patients. J Human Hypertension. 1996;10: 369-73.
14. Convertino VA. Mechanisms of blood pressure regulation that differ in men reatedly exposed to high-G acceleration. Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol. 2001; 280: R947-R58.
15. László Z, Rössler A, Hinghofer-Szalkay HG. Cardiovascular and humoral readjustment after different levels of head-up tilt in humans. Aviat Space Environ Med. 2001; 72: 193-201.
16. Schutzman J, Jaeger F, Maloney J, Fouad-Tarazi F. Head-up tilt and hemodynamic changes during orthostatic hypotension in patients with supine hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1994; 24: 454-61.
17. Gabbett TJ, Weston SB, Barrett RS, Gass GC. Cardiovascular regulation during head-up tilt in healthy 20-30-year old and 70-75-year-old men. Clin Sci. 2001; 100: 199-206.
18. Tripathi A, Shi X, Wenger B, Nadel ER. Effect of temperature and baroreceptor stimulation on reflex venomotor responses. J Appl Phys. 1984; 57: 1384-92.
19. Sawka MN, Convertino VA, Eichner ER, Schnieder SM, Young AJ. Blood volume:importance and adaptations to exercise training, environmental stresses, and trauma/sickness. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000; 32: 332-48.
20. Fadel PJ, Stromstad M, Hansen J, et al. Arterial baroreflex control of sympathetic nerve activity during acute hypotension: effect of fitness. Am J Phys Heart Circ Phys. 2001; 280: H524-H32.
21. Lavernhe J. La vie en apensateur. Presse Med 1971; 79(48): 2190.
22. Custaud MA. Ne pas oublier la gravité. Rev Prat. 2001; 51: 1745-47.
23. Convertino V, Hoffler GW. Cardiovascular physiology. Effects of microgravity. J Fla Med Assoc. 1992; 79: 517-24.
24. Pekarski SE. A gravitational hypothesis of essential hypertension as a natural adaptation to increased gravitational stress caused by regular, prolonged sitting typical of modern life. Med Sci Monit. 2004; 10: HY27-32.
25. Montastruc JL, Senard JM, Verwaerde P, Montastruc P. Physiological mechanisms of cardiovascular adaptation to orthostatism. Role of the sympathetic nervous system and pharmacological implications. Therapie. 1994; 49: 81-7.
26. Benditt DG, Ferguson DW, Grubb BP, et al. Tilt table testing for assessing syncope. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996 Jul; 28: 263-75.
27. Kaplan NM. Southwestern internal medicine conference: two faces of sympathetic nervous activity - hypotension and hypertension. Am J Med Sci. 1992; 303: 271-9.
28. Wang Y, Marshall RJ, Shepherd JT . The effect of changes in posture and of graded exercise on stroke volume in man. J Clin Invest. 1960; 39: 1051-61.
29. Stevens PM. Cardiovascular dynamics during orthostasis and the influence of intravascular instrumentation. Am J Cardiol. 1966; 17: 211-18.
30. Wieling W, Shepherd JT. Initial and delayed circulatory responses to orthostatic stress in normal humans and in subjects with orthostatic intolerance. Intern Angiol. 1992; 11: 69-82.
31. Montastruc JL, Senard JM, Verwaerde P, Montastruc P. Mécanismes physiologiques de l'adaptation cardiovasculaire à l'orthostatisme. Therapie. 1994; 49: 81-7.
32. van Lieshout JJ, Secher NH. Reflex control of sympathetic vasoconstrictor activity in vasovagal syncope. Clin Auton Res. 2003; 13: 175-7.
33. Madsen P, Svendsen LB, Jorgensen LG, Matzen S, Jansen E, Secher NH. Tolerance to head-up tilt and suspension with elevated legs. Aviat Space Environ Med. 1998; 69: 781-4.
34. Levine B. Regulation of central blood volume and cardiac filling in endurance athletes. The Frank-Starling mechanism as a determinant of orthostatic tolerance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1993; 25: 727-32.
35. Olsen H, Vernersson E, Länne T. Cardiovascular response to acute hypovolemia in relation to age. Implications for orthostasis and hemorrhage. Am J Physiol Heart Cir Physiol.2000; 278: H222-H32.
36. Scheinberg P, Stead E. The cerebral blood flow in male subjects as measured by the nitrous oxide technique. Normal values for blood flow, oxygen utilization and peripheral resistence with observations on the effects of tilting and anxiety. J Clin Invest.1949; 28: 1163.
37. Ouchi Y, Okada H, Yoshikawa E, Futatsubashi M, Nobezawa S . Absolute changes in regional cerebral blood flow in association with upright posture in humans: an orthostatic PET study. J Nucl Med.2001; 42: 707-12.
38. Sander-Jensen K, Secher NH, Astrup A, et al. Hypotension induced by passive head-up tilt: endocrine and circulatory mechanisms. Am J Physiol.1989; 251: R742-R48.
39. Jacobsen TN, Morgan BJ, Scherrer U, et al. Circulation Research 1993; 73: 367-78.
40. Xiangrong S, Gallagher KM, Welch-Oconnor RM, Foresman BH. Arterial and cardiopulmonary baroreflexes in 60- to 69- vs. 18- to 36-yr-old humans. J Appl Physiol.1996; 80: 1903-10.
41. Siché JP, Chevallier M, Tremel F, et al. Sensibilité baroréflexe et retentissement vasculaire chez l'hypertendu. Arch Mal Coeur.1995; 88: 1243-46.
42. Mancia G, Mark AL. Arterial baroreflexes in humans. In: Handbook of Physiology, section 2, The Cardiovascular System, Vol III, Peripheral Circulation and Organ Blood Flow, part 2, eds. Shepherd JT & Abboud FM 1983, pp755 - 813. American Physiological Society: Bethesda, Md, USA.
43. Ray CA, Monahan KD. Aging attenuates the vestibulosympathetic reflex in human. Circulation.2002; 1059: 956-61.
44. Mosqueda-Garcia R, Furlan R, Tank J, Fernandez-Violante R. The elusive pathophysiology of neurally mediated syncope. Circulation.2000; 102: 2898-906.
45. Muenter NK, Watenpaugh DE, Wasmund WL, Wasmund SL, Maxwell SA, Smith ML. Effect of sleep restriction on orthostatic cardiovascular control in humans. J Appl Physiol. 2000; 88: 966-72.
46. Di Girolano E, Di Iorio C, Leonzio L, Sabatini P, Barsotti A . Usefulness of tilt training program for the prevention of refractory neurocardiogenic syncope in adolescents. A controlled study. Circulation. 1999; 100: 1798-801.
47. Newman DG, White SW, Callster R. Evidence of baroreflex adaptation to repetitive +Gz in fighter pilots. Aviat Space Environ Med. 1998; 69: 446-51.
48. Ludwig DA, Convertino VA. Predicting orthostatic intolerance: physics or physiology? Aviat Space Environ Med. 1994; 65: 404-11.
49. Rossberg F, Penaz J. Does the arterial baroreflex control the initial heart rate response to standing? Biomed Biochim Acta. 1987; 46: K9-K12.
50. Smith AS, Fasler JJ. Age-related changes in autonomic function: Relationship with postural hypotension. Age and Ageing. 1983; 12: 206-10.
51. Jingu S, Takeshita A, Imaizumi T, Sakai K, Nakamura M. Age-related decreases in cardiac receptor control of forearm vascular resistance in humans. Clin Exp Hypertens A. 1989; 11(Suppl 1): 211-6.
52. Cleroux J, Giannattasio C, Bolla G, et al. Decreased cardiopulmonary reflexes with aging in normotensive humans. Am J Physiol. 1989 Sep; 257 (3 Pt 2): H961-8.
53. Wing LM, Tonkin AL. Orthostatic blood pressure control and ageing. Aust N Z J Med. 1997; 27(4): 462-6.
54. Sevre K, Lefrandt JD, Nordby G, et al. Autonomic functions in hypertensive and normotensive subjects. The importance of gender. Hypertension. 2001; 37: 1351-56.
55. Maliani G, Ferrari A, Gregorini L, et al. Spectral analysis to assess increased sympathetic tone in arterial hypertension. Hypertension. 1991; 17 (suppl III): 36-42.
56. Yo Y, Nagano M, Nagano N, et al. Effect of age and hypertension on autonomic nervous regulation during passive head-uptilt. Hypertension 1994; 23(suppl. I): 182-86.
57. Tonkin A, Wing L. Aging and susceptibility to drug-induced orthostatic hypotension. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1992; 52: 277-85.
58. James MA, Potter JF. Orthostatic blood pressure changes and arterial baroreflex sensitivity in elderly subjects. Age and Ageing. 1999; 28: 522-30.
59. Rutan GH, Hermanson B, Bild DE, Kittner SJ, LaBaw F, Tell GS. Orthostatic hypotension in older adults. Cardiovascular Health Study. Hypertension. 1992; 19: 508-19.
60. Gribbin B, Pickering TG, Sleight P, Peto R. Effect of age and high blood pressure on baroreflex sensitivity in man. Circ Res. 1971; 29: 424-31.
61. Korner PI, West MJ, Shaw J, Uther JB. "Steady-state" properties of the baroreceptor-heart rate reflex in essencial hypertension in man. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 1974; 1: 65-76.
62. Sundlöf G, Wallin BG. Human muscle nerve sympathetic activity at rest. Relationship to blood pressure and age. J Physiol. 1978; 274: 621-37.
63. Lipsitz LA, Jonsson PV, Marks BL, Parker JA, Royal HD, Wei JY. Reduced supine cardiac volumes and diastolic filling rates in elderly patients with chronic medical conditions. Implications for postural blood pressure homeostasis. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1990; 38: 103-7.
64. Weidmann P, De Myttenaere-Bursztein S, Maxwell MH, de Lima J. Effect of aging on plasma renin and aldosterone in man. Kidney Int. 1975; 8: 325-33.
65. Epstein M, Hollenberg NK. Age as a determinant of renal sodium conservation in normal man. J Lab Clin Med. 1976; 87: 411-17.
66. Kingwell BA, Cameron JD, Gillies KJ, Jennings GL, Dart AM. Arterial compliance may influence baroreflex function in athletes and hypertensives. Heart Circ. Physiol. 1995; 37: H411-H418.
67. Nichols WW, O'Rourke MF. McDonalds Blood Flow in Arteries: Theoretical, Experimental, and Clinical Principles. 4rd Ed. London: Melbourne, Auckland; Edward Arnold, 1998.
68. Glaser E, Lacolley P, Boutouyrie P, et al. Dynamic versus static compliance of the carotid artery in living Wistar-Kyoto rats. J Vasc Res. 1995; 32: 254-65.
69. Lenard Z, Fulop D, Visontai Z, et al. Static versus dynamic distensibility of the carotid artery in humans. J Vas Res. 2000; 37: 103-11.
70. Hunt EB, Farquhar WB, Taylor JA. Does reduced vascular stiffening fully explain preserved cardiovagal baroreflex function in older, physically active men? Circulation. 2001; 103: 2424-27.
71. Itoh H, Bunag RD. Aging reduces cardiovascular and sympathetic responses to NTS injections ofserotonin in rats. Exp Gerontol. 1992; 27: 309-20.
72. Dauchot P, Gravenstein JS. Effects of atropine on the electrocardiogram in different age groups. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1971; 12: 274-80.
73. Brodde OE, Konschak U, Becker K, et al. Cardiac muscarinic receptores decrease with age. In vitro and in vivo studies. J Clin Invest. 1998; 101: 471-8.
74. Monahan KD, Dinenno FA, Seals DR, Clevenger CM, Desouza CA, Tanaka H. Age-associated changes in cardiovagal baroreflex sensitivity are related to central arterial compliance. Am J Phys Heart Circ Phys. 2001; 281: H248-H249.
75. Brown AM. Receptors under pressure: an update on baroreceptors. Circ Res. 1980; 46: 1-10.
76. Avolio AP, Deng FQ, LI WQ, et al. Effects of aging on arterial distensibility in populations with high and low prevalence of hypertension: comparison between urban and rural communities in China. Circulation. 1985; 71: 202-10.
77. Tanaka H, DeSouza CA, Jones PP, Stevenson ET, Davy KP, Seals DR. Aging, habitual exercise, and dynamic arterial compliance. Circulation. 2000; 102: 1270-75.
78. Mosqueda-Garcia R, Furlan R, Fernandez-Violante R, et al. Sympathetic and baroreceptor reflex function in neurally mediated syncope evoked by tilt. J Clin Invest. 1997; 99: 2736-44.
79. van Lieshout JJ, Wieling W, Karemaker JM, et al. The vasovagal response. Clin Sci. 1991; 81: 575-86.
80. Rachev A, Stergiopulos N, Meister JJ. Theoretical study of dynamics of arterial wall remodeling in response to changes in blood pressure. J Biomech. 1996; 29: 635-42.
81. Tanaka H, DeSouza CA, Seals DR. Absence of age-related increase in central arterial stiffness in physically active women. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1998;18: 127-32.
82. Latham RD, Tran CC, Fanton JW, White CD, Owens RW, Self DA. Aortic wave reflection and input impedance as a function of posture in a chronic primate model. Physiologist. 1992; 35: S53-S54.
83. Tran CC, Lathan RD, Self DA, Fanton JW, White CD, Owens RW. Ventricular/vascular coupling under hyergravidity in a chronically instrumented conscious primate model. Physiologist. 1992; 35: S55-S58.
84. Lathan RD, Rubal BJ, Westerhof N, Sipkema P, Walsh RA. Nonhuman primate model for regional wave travel and reflections along aortas. Am J Physiol. 1987; 253: H299-H306.
85. Sonesson B, Länne T, Hansen F, Sandgren T. Infrarenal aortic diameter in the healthy person. Eur J Vasc Surg. 1994; 8: 89-95.
86. Silva ES, Rodriguez Jr AJ, Tolosa EMC, Pereira PRB, Zanoto A, Martins J. Variation of infrarenal aortic diameter: a necropsy study. J Vasc Surg. 1999; 29: 20-7.
87. Blacher J, Guerin AP, Pannier B, Marchais SJ, Safar ME, London GM. Impact of aortic stiffness on survival in end-stage renal disease. Circulation. 1999; 99: 2434-9.
88. Asmar R, Rudnichi A, Blacher J, London GM, Safar ME. Pulse pressure and aortic pulse wave are markers of cardiovascular risk in hypertensive populations. Am J Hypertension. 2001; 14: 91-7.
89. Amar J, Ruidavets JB, Chamontin B, Drouet L, Ferriéres J. Arterial stiffness and cardiovascular risk factors in a population-based study. J Hypertension. 2001; 19: 381-7.
90. O'Rourke M. Mechanical principles in arterial disease. Hypertension. 1995; 26: 2-9.
91. Kanda T, Nakamura E, Moritani T, Yamori Y. Arterial pulse wave velocity and risk factors for peripheral vascular disease. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2000; 82: 1-7.
92. O'Rourke MF. Pressure and flow waves in systemic arteries and the anatomical design of the arterial system. J Appl Phys. 1967; 23: 139-49.
93. Asmar R, Benetos A, Topouchian J, et al. Assessment of arterial distensibility by automatic pulse wave velocity measurement. Validation and clinical application studies. Hypertension. 1995; 26: 485-90.
94. Asmar RG, Topouchian A., Benetos A, Sayegh FA, Mourad JJ, Safar ME. Non-invasive evaluation of arterial abnormalities in hypertensive patients. J Hypertension. 1997; 15(Suppl. 2): S99-S107.
95. Elias J. Influência da ortostase no comportamento funcional dos grandes vasos arteriais [dissertação]. Programa de Pós-graduação em ciências fisiológicas - Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo (UFES); 2002.
96. Rogers WJ, Hu YL, Coast D, et al. Age-associated changes in regional aortic pulse wave velocity. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001; 38: 1123-9.
97. O'Rourke MF. Mechanical Principles. Arterial stiffness and wave reflection. Pathologie Biologie. 1999, 47: 623-33.
98. London GM, Guerin AP. Influence of arterial pulse and reflected waves on blood pressure and cardiac function. Am Heart J. 1999; 138: S220-S224.
99. Hasegawa M, Rodbard S. Effect of posture on arterial pressures, timing of the arterial sounds and pulse wave velocities in the extremities. Cardiology. 1979; 64: 122-32.
100. Iida N, Iriuchijima J. Postural changes in finger and toe pulse waves. Kokyu. To. Junkan 1992; 40: 981-6.
101. Lakatta EG. Cardiovascular regulatory mechanisms in advanced age. Physiol Reviews. 1993; 73: 413-67.
102. Kroeker EJ, Wood EH. Comparison of simultaneously recorded central and peripheral arterial pressure pulses during rest, exercise and tilted position in man. Circ Res. 1955; 3: 6223-31.
103. Nichols WW, O'Rourke MF, et al. Effects of age on ventricular-vascular coupling. Am J Cardiol. 1985; 55: 1179-84.
104. Gatzka CD, Kingwell BA, Cameron JD, et al and the ANBP2 investigators. Gender differences in the timing of arterial wave reflection beyond differences in body hight. J Hypertension. 2001; 19: 2197-203.
105. Bartoletti A, Alboni P, Ammirati F, et al. 'The Italian Protocol': a simplified head-up tilt testing potentiated with oral nitroglycerin to assess patients with unexplained syncope. Europace. 2000; 2: 339-42.
106. Aerts AJ, Dendale P. Diagnostic value of nitrate stimulated tilt testing without preceding passive tilt in patients with suspected vasovagal syncope and a healthy control group. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2005; 28: 29-32.
107. Soma J, Angelsen AJ, Techn D, Aakhus S, Skjaerpe T. Sublingual nitroglycerin arterial wave reflections despite increased aortic "stiffness" in patients with hypertension: a Doppler echocardiography study. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2000; 13: 1100-8.
108. Sá Cunha R, Pannier B, Benetos A, et al. Association between high heart rate and high arterial rigidity in normotensive and hypertensive subjects. J Hypertension. 1997; 15: 1423-30.
109. Asmar R, Topouchian J, Pannier B, Rudnichi A, Safar M. Reversion of arterial abnormalities by long-term antihypertensive therapy in a large population. The Complior® study. J Hipertension. 1999; 17: Suppl 3: S9.
110. Albaladejo P, Asmar R, Safar M, Benetos A. Association between 24-hours ambulatory heart rate and arterial stiffness. J Human Hypertension. 2000; 14: 137-41.
111. Benetos A, Adamopoulos C, Bureau JA, et al. Stiffness in normotensive subjects and in treated hypertensive subjects over a 6-Year Period. Circulation. 2002; 105: 1202-7.
112. Mircoli L, Mangoni AA, Giannattasio C, Mancia G, Ferrari AU. Heart rate-dependent stiffening of large arteries in intact and sympathectomized rats. Hypertension. 1999; 34:598-602.
113. Wilkinson IB, Mohammad NH, Tyrrell S, et al. Heart rate dependency of pulse pressure amplification and arterial stiffness. Am J Hypertens. 2002; 15 (1 Pt 1): 24-30.
114. Simpson DM, Wicks R. Spectral analysis of heart rate indicated reduced baroreceptor-related heart rate variability in elderly persons. J Gerontol. 1988; 43: M21-M24.
115. Schwartz JB, Gibb WJ, Tran T. Aging effects on heart rate variation. J Gerontol. 1991; 46: M99-M106.
116. Dambrink JHA, Wieling W. Circulatory response to postural change in healthy male subjects in relation to age. Clinical Science. 1987; 72: 335-41.
117. Hainsworth R, Al-Shamma YMH. Cardiovascular response to upright tilting in healthy subjects. Clinical Science. 1988; 74: 17-22.
118. Rodeheffer RJ, Gerstenblith G, Beard E, et al. Postural changes in cardiac volumes in men in relation to adult age. Exp Gerontol. 1986; 21: 367-78.
119. Crandall CG, Engelke KA, Convertino VA, Raven PB. Aortic baroreflex control of heart rate after 15 days of simulated microgravity exposure. J Appl Physiol. 1994; 77: 2134-9.
120. Colman N, Nahm K, Ganzeboom KS, et al. Epidemiology of reflex syncope. Clin Auton Res. 2004; 14 (Suppl 1): 9-17.
121. Smulyan H, Marchais SJ, Pannier B, Guerin AP, Safar ME, London G. Influence of body height on pulsatile arterial hemodynamic data. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998; 31: 1103-9.
122. Willich SN, Levy D, Rocco MB, Tofler GH, Stone PH, Muller JE. Circadian variation in the incidence of sudden cardiac death in the Framingham Heart Study population. Am J Cardiol. 1987; 60: 801-6.
123. Muller JE, Stone PH, Turi ZG. The MILIS Study Group:circadian variation in the frequency of onset of acute myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 1985; 313: 1315-22.
124. Maron BJ, Kogan J, Proschan MA, Hecht GM, Roberts WC. Circadian variability in the occurrence of sudden cardiac death in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1994; 23:1405-9.
125. O'Rourke MF. Vascular impedance in studies of arterial and cardiac function. Physiol Rev. 1982; 62: 570-23.
126. Chen HC, Hu HH, Lin YP, Chern CM, Hsu TK, Ding PYA. Increased arterial wave reflection may predispose syncopal attacks. Clin Cardiol. 2000; 23: 825-30.
127. Chen MY, Goldenberg IF, Milstein S, et al. Cardiac electrophysiologic and hemodynamic correlates of neurally mediated syncope. Am J Cardiol. 1989; 63: 66-72.
128. Seals DR, Taylor JA, Ng AV, Esler MD. Exercise and aging: autonomic control of the circulation. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1994; 26: 568-76.
129. White M, Roden R, Minobe W. Age-related changes in beta-adrenergic neuroeffector systems in the human heart. Circulation. 1994; 90: 1225-38.
130. Kario K, Pickering TG, Umeda Y, et al. Morning surge in blood pressure as a predictor of silent and clinical cerebrovascular disease in elderly hypertensives. A prospective study. Circulation. 2003; 107: 1401-6.
131. Naschitz JE, Mazov I, Eridzhanyan K, Keren D, Rennert HS, Yeshurun D. Hypotensive reactions on passive head-up tilt testing of hypertensive patients. J Human Hypertension. 1996; 10: 369-73.