Manipulation of primary sex-ratio: An updated review

Avian and Poultry Biology Reviews

Volumn 17, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 1-20

  Alonso Alvarez, Carlos ^a  

^a INSTITUTO DE INVESTIGACIÓN EN RECURSOS CINEGÉTICOS IREC CSIC UCLM JCCM   (Spain)

Author keywords

Birds; Primary sex ratio; Proximate mechanisms; Segregation distortion; Sex allocation; Sex specific embryo mortality

Indexed keywords

AVES;

EID: 33748133965     PISSN: 14702061     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3184/147020606783437930     Document Type: Review

References (167)

1. Alonso-Alvarez, C. and Velando, A. (2003) Female body condition and brood sex ratio in Yellow-legged Gulls Larus cachinnans. Ibis, 145, 220-226.
2. Anderson, D.J., Reeve, J.D. and Bird, D.M. (1997) Sexually dimorphic eggs, nestling growth and sibling competition in American kestrels, Falco sparverius. Funct. Ecol., 11, 331-335.
3. Andersson, M., Wallander, J., Oring, L., Akst, E., Reed, J.M. and Fleischer, R.C. (2003) Adaptive seasonal trend in brood sex ratio: test in two sister species with contrasting breeding systems. J. Evol. Biol., 16, 510-515.
4. Ankney, C.D. (1982) Sex ratio varies with egg sequence in lesser snow geese. Auk, 99, 662-666.
5. Appleby, B.M., Petty, S.J., Blakey, J.K., Rainey, P. and MacDonald, D.W. (1997) Does variation of sex ratio enhance reproductive success of offspring in tawny owls (Strix aluco)? Proc. R. Soc. Lond., B, 264, 1111-1116.
6. Arnold, K.E., Griffith, S.C. and Goldizen, A.W. (2001) Sex-biased hatching sequences in the cooperatively breeding Noisy Miner. J. Avian Biol., 32, 219-223.
7. Arnold, K.E., Orr, K.J. and Griffiths, R. (2003a) Primary sex ratios in birds: problems with molecular sex identification of undeveloped eggs. Mol. Ecol., 12, 3451-3458.
8. Arnold, K.E., Griffiths, R., Stevens, D.J., Orr, K.J., Adam, A. and Houston, D.C. (2003b) Subtle manipulation of egg sex ratio in birds. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B, 270, S216-S219.
9. Ashizawa, K., Wishart, G.J. and Tsuzuki, Y. (2000) Avian sperm motility: environmental and intracellular regulation. Avian Poultry Biol. Rev., 11, 161-172.
10. Bado, A., Levasseur, S., Attoub, S., Kermorgant, S., Laigneau, J.P., Bortoluzzi, M.N., Moizo, L., Lehy, T., Guerre-Millo, M., Le Marchand-Brustel, Y. and Lewin M.J.M. (1998) The stomach is a source of leptin. Nature, 394, 790-793.
11. Badyaev, A.V., Hill, G.E., Beck, M.L., Dervan, A.A., Duckworth, R.A., McGraw, K.J., Nolan, P.M. and Whittingham, L.A. (2002) Sex-biased hatching order and adaptive population divergence in a passerine bird. Science, 295, 316-318.
12. Badyaev, A.V., Beck, M.L., Hill, G.E. and Whittingham, L.A. (2003a) The evolution of sexual size dimorphism in the house finch. V. Maternal effects. Evolution, 57, 384-396.
13. Badyaev, A.V., Hill, G.E. and Beck, M.L. (2003b) Interaction between maternal effects: onset of incubation and offspring sex in two populations of a passerine bird. Oecologia, 135, 386-390.
14. Badyaev, A.V., Schwabl, H., Young, R.L., Duckworth, R.A., Navara, K.J. and Parlow, A.F. (2005) Adaptive sex differences in growth of pre-ovulation oocytes in a passerine bird. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B, 272, 2165-2172.
15. Badyaev, A.V., Acevedo Seaman, D., Navara, K.J., Hill G.E. and Mendonça, M.T. (2006a) Evolution of sex-biased maternal effects in birds: III. Adjustment of ovulation order can enable sex-specific allocation of hormones, carotenoids, and vitamins. J. Evol. Biol., in press, doi:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2006. 01106.x.
16. Badyaev, A.V., Oh, K.P. and Mui, R. (2006b) Evolution of sex-biased maternal effects in birds: II. Contrasting sex-specific oocyte competition in native and recently established populations. J. Evol. Biol., 19, 909-921.
17. Bakst, M.R. (1994) Fate of fluorescent stained sperm following insemination: new light on oviducal sperm transport and storage in the turkey. Biol. Reprod., 50, 987-992.
18. Batellier, F., Govoroun, M. and Brillard, J.P. (2004) Sex-ratio chez les oiseaux sauvages et domestiques. INRA Prod. Anim., 17, 365-372.
19. Baverstock, P.R., Adams, M., Polkinghorn, R.W. and Gelder, M. (1982) A sex-linked enzyme in birds Z-chromosome conservation but no dosage compensation. Nature, 296, 763-766.
20. Beukeboom, L., Dijkstra, C., Daan, S. and Meijer, T. (1988) Seasonality of clutch size determination in the kestrel Falco tinnunculus: an experimental approach. Ornis Scand., 19, 41-48.
21. Birkhead, T.R. (1995). Sperm competition: evolutionary causes and consequences. Reprod. Fertil. Develop., 7, 755-775.
22. Birkhead, T.R. and Fletcher, F. (1995) Depletion determines sperm numbers in male zebra finches. Anim. Behav., 49, 451-456.
23. Birkhead, T.R. and Møller, A.P. (1992) Numbers and size of sperm storage tubules and the duration of sperm storage in birds - a comparative-study. Biol. J. Linn. Soc., 45, 363-372.
24. Blanco, G., Dávila, J.A., López Septiem, J.A., Rodríguez, R. and Martínez, F. (2002) Sex-biased initial eggs favour sons in the slightly size-dimorphic Scops owl (Otus scops). Biol. J. Linn. Soc., 76, 1-7.
25. Blanco, G., Martínez-Padilla, J., Dávila, J.A., Serrano, D. and Viñuela, J. (2003a) First evidence of sex differences in the duration of avian embryonic period: consequences for sibling competition in sexually dimorphic birds. Behav. Ecol., 14, 702-706.
26. Blanco, G., Martínez-Padilla, J., Serrano, D., Dávila, J.A. and Viñuela, J. (2003b) Mass provisioning to different-sex eggs within the laying sequence: consequences for adjustment of reproductive effort in a sexually dimorphic bird. J. Anim. Ecol., 72, 831-838.
27. Blount, J.D., Surai, P.F., Nager, R.G., Houston, D.C., Møller, A.P., Trewby, M.L. and Kennedy, M.W. (2002) Carotenoids and egg quality in the lesser black-backed gull Larus fuscus: a supplemental feeding study of maternal effects. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B, 269, 29-36.
28. Brann, D.W., Wade, M.F., Dhandapani, K.M., Mahesh, V.B. and Buchanan, C.D. (2002) Leptin and reproduction. Steroids, 67, 95-104.
29. Brommer, J.E., Karell, P., Pihlaja, T., Painter, J.N., Primmer, C.R. and Pietiainen, H. (2003) Ural owl sex allocation and parental investment under poor food conditions. Oecologia, 137, 140-147.
30. Burley, N. (1986) Sex-ratio manipulation in color-banded populations of zebra finches. Evolution, 40, 1191-1206.
31. Burley, R.W. and Vadehra, D.V. (1989) The Avian Egg: Chemistry and Biology. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
32. Chandra, H.S. (1991) How do heterogametic females survive without gene dosage compensation? J. Genet., 70, 137-146.
33. Charnov, E.L. (1982) The Theory of Sex Allocation. Princeton University Press, Princeton.
34. Chen, C.C. and Johnson, P.A. (1996) Expression of inhibin alpha and inhibin/activin beta (3) subunits in the granulosa layer of the large preovulatory follicles of the hen. Biol. Reprod., 55, 450-454.
35. Cichón, M., Sendecka, J. and Gustafsson, L. (2005) Male-biased sex ratio among unhatched eggs in great tit Parus major, blue tit P. caeruleus and collared flycatcher Ficedula albicolli. J. Avian Biol., 36, 386-390.
36. Clarke, M.F., Jones, D.A., Ewen, J.G., Robertson, R.J., Griffiths, R., Painter, J., Boag, P.T. and Crozier, R. (2002) Male-biased sex ratios in broods of the cooperatively breeding bell miner Manorina melanophrys. J. Avian Biol., 33, 71-76.
37. Clutton-Brock, T.H. (1986) Sex ratio variation in birds. Ibis, 128, 317-329.
38. Cock, A.G. (1964) Dosage compensation and sex-chromatin in non-mammals. Genet. Res. Camb., 5, 354-365.
39. Cohen, J. (1975) Gametic diversity within an ejaculate. In The Functional Anatomy of the Spermatozoan: Proceedings of the Second International Symposium, Afzelius, B.A. (ed.) Wenner-Gren Center, Stockholm, pp. 329-339.
40. Cook, M.I. and Monaghan, P. (2004) Sex differences in embryo development periods and effects on avian hatching patterns. Behav. Ecol., 15, 205-209.
41. Cordero, P.J., Griffiths, S.C., Aparicio, J.M. and Parkin, D.T. (2000) Sexual dimorphism in house sparrow eggs. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 48, 353-357.
42. Cordero, P.J., Vinuela, J., Aparicio, J.M., and Veiga, J.P. (2001) Seasonal variation in sex ratio and sexual egg dimorphism favouring daughters in first clutches of the spotless starling. J. Evol. Biol., 14, 829-834.
43. Correa, S.M., Adkins-Regan, E. and Johnson, P.A. (2005) High progesterone during avian meiosis biases sex ratios toward females. Biol. Lett., 1, 215-218.
44. Criscuolo, F., Bertile, F., Durant, J.M., Raclot, T., Gabrielsen, G.W., Massemin, S. and Chastel, O. (2006) Body mass and clutch size may modulate prolactin and corticosterone levels in eiders. Physiol. Biochem. Zool., 79, 514-521.
45. Deeming, D.C. (2002) Avian Incubation: Behaviour, Environment, and Evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
46. Doutrelant, C., Covas, R., Caizergues, A. and du Plessis, M. (2004) Unexpected sex ratio adjustment in a colonial cooperative bird: pairs with helpers produce more of the helping sex whereas pairs without helpers do not. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 56, 149-154.
47. Dreiss, A., Richard, M., Moyen, F., White, J., Møller, A.P. and Danchin, E. (2006) Sex ratio and male sexual characters in a population of blue tits, Parus caeruleus. Behav. Ecol., 17, 13-19.
48. Dyrcz, A., Sauer-Gurth, H., Tkadlec, E. and Wink, M. (2004) Offspring sex ratio variation in relation to brood size and mortality in a promiscuous species: the Aquatic Warbler Acrocephalus paludicola. Ibis, 146, 269-280.
49. Eising, C.M., Müller, W., Dijkstra, C. and Groothuis, T.G.G. (2003) Maternal androgens in egg yolks: relation with sex, incubation time and embryonic growth. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol., 132, 241-247.
50. Ellegren, H. (2002) Dosage compensation: do birds do it as well? Trends Genet., 18, 25-28.
51. Emlen, S.T. (1997) When mothers prefer daughters over sons. Trends Ecol. Evol., 12, 291-292.
52. Endow, S.A. (1999) Microtubule motors in spindle and chromosome motility. Eur. J. Biochem., 262, 12-18.
53. Etches, R. and Duke, C. (1984) Progesterone, androstenedione and estradiol content of theca and granulosa tissues of the four largest ovarian follicles during the ovulatory cycle of the hen. J. Endocrinol., 103, 71-76.
54. Ewen, J.G., Cassey, P. and Møller, A.P. (2004) Facultative primary sex ratio variation: a lack of evidence in birds? Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B, 271, 1277-1282.
55. Ewen, J.G., Crozier, R.H., Cassey, P., Ward-Smith, T., Painter, J.N., Robertson, R.J., Jones, D.A. and Clarke, M.F. (2003) Facultative control of offspring sex in the cooperatively breeding bell miner, Manorina melanophrys. Behav. Ecol., 14, 157-164.
56. Fernandes Martins, T.L. (2004) Sex-specific growth rates in zebra finch nestlings: a possible mechanism for sex ratio adjustment. Behav. Ecol., 15, 174-180.
57. Fiala, K.L. (1980) On estimating the primary sex ratio from incomplete data. Am. Nat., 115, 442-444.
58. Fiala, K.L. (1981) Sex ratio constancy in the red-winged blackbird. Evolution, 35, 898-910.
59. Finkler, M.S., van Orman, J.B. and Sotherland, P.R. (1998) Experimental manipulation of egg quality in chickens: influence of albumen and yolk on the size and body composition of near-term embryos in a precocial bird. J. Comp. Physiol., 168, 17-24.
60. Fletcher, K.L. and Hamer, K.C. (2004) Offspring sex ratio in the common tern Sterna hirundo, a species with negligible sexual size dimorphism. Ibis, 146, 454-460.
61. Freedman, S.L., Akuffo, V.G. and Bakst, M.R. (2001) Evidence for the innervation of sperm storage tubules in the oviduct of the turkey (Meleagris gallopavo). Reproduction, 121, 809-814.
62. Fridolfsson, A.K. and Ellegren, H. (1999) A simple and universal method for molecular sexing of non-ratite birds. J. Avian Biol., 30, 116-121.
63. Gasparini, J., McCoy, K., Tveraa, T. and Boulinier, T. (2002) Related concentrations of specific immunoglobulins against the Lyme disease agent Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in eggs, young and adults of the kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla). Ecol. Lett., 5, 519-524.
64. Genovart, M., Oro, D., Ruiz, X., Griffiths, R., Monaghan, P. and Nager, R.G. (2003) Seasonal changes in brood sex composition in Audouin's Gulls. Condor, 105, 783-790.
65. Gil, D., Graves, J., Hazon, N. and Wells, A. (1999) Male attractiveness and differential testosterone investment in zebra finch eggs. Science, 286, 126-128.
66. Gilbert, A.B., Perry, M.M., Waddington, D. and Hardie, M.A. (1983) The role of atresia in establishing the follicular hierarchy in the ovary of the domestic hen (Gallus domesticus). J. Reprod. Fertil., 69, 221-227.
67. Gilbert, L., Rutstein, A.N., Hazon, N. and Graves, J.A. (2005) Sex-biased investment in yolk androgens depends on female quality and laying order in zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata). Naturwissenschaften, 92, 178-181.
68. Gorman, H.E. and Nager, R.G. (2004) Prenatal developmental conditions have long-term effects on offspring fecundity. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B, 271, 1923-1928.
69. Goth, A. and Booth, D.T. (2005) Temperature-dependent sex ratio in a bird. Biol. Lett., 1, 31-33.
70. Green, D.J. (2002) Pair bond duration influences paternal provisioning and the primary sex ratio of brown thornbill broods. Anim. Behav., 64, 791-800.
71. Griffiths, R., Double, M.C., Orr, K. and Dawson, R.J.G. (1998) A DNA test to sex most birds. Mol. Ecol., 7, 1071-1075.
72. Griffith, S.C., Ornborg, J., Russell, A.F., Andersson, S. and Sheldon, B.C. (2003) Correlations between ultraviolet coloration, overwinter survival and offspring sex ratio in the blue tit. J. Evol. Biol., 16, 1045-1054.
73. Hardy, I.C. (2002) Sex ratios. Concepts and Research Methods. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
74. Hasselquist, D. and Kempenaers, K. (2002) Parental care and adaptive brood sex ratio manipulation in birds. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B, 357, 363-372.
75. Hayward, L.S. and Wingfield, J.C. (2004) Maternal corticosterone is transferred to avian yolk and may alter offspring growth and adult phenotype. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol., 135, 365-371.
76. Howe, H.F. (1977) Sex ratio adjustment in the common grackle. Science, 198, 744-745.
77. Johnson, A.L. (1986) Reproduction in the female. In: Avian Physiology, Sturkie, P.D. (ed.) Springer, New York, pp. 403-431.
78. Johnson, A.L. (1996) The avian ovarian hierarchy: a balance between follicle differentiation and atresia. Poult. Avian Biol. Rev., 7, 99-110.
79. Johnson, A.L. (2000) Reproduction in the female. In: Sturkie's Avian Physiology, Whitlow, C.G. (ed.) Academic Press, London, p. 569-596.
80. Johnson, A.L. (2003) Intracellular mechanisms regulating cell survival in ovarian follicles. Anim. Reprod. Sci., 78, 185-201.
81. Johnson, A.L. and Leone, E.W. (1985) Ovine luteinizing hormone-induced steroid and luteinizing hormone secretion, and ovulation in intact and pregnant mare serum gonadotrophin-primed hens. Poultry Sci., 64, 2171-2179.
82. Johnson, P.A., Brooks, C.F. and Davis A.J. (2005) Pattern of secretion of immunoreactive inhibin/activin subunits by avian granulosa cells. Gen. Comp. Endocrin., 141, 233-239.
83. King, J.R. (1973) Energetics of reproduction in birds. In: Breeding Biology of Birds, Farner, D.S. (ed.) National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., pp 78-106.
84. Kitaysky, A.S., Piatt, J.F., Wingfield, J.C. and Romano, M. (1999) The adrenocortical stress-response of black-legged kittiwake chicks in relation to dietary restrictions. J. Comp. Physiol. B, 169, 303-310.
85. Komdeur, J. (1998) Long-term fitness benefits of egg sex modification by the Seychelles warbler. Ecol. Lett., 1, 56-62.
86. Komdeur, J. and Ido Pen, I. (2002) Adaptive sex allocation in birds: the complexities of linking theory and practice. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B, 357, 373-380.
87. Komdeur, J., Daan, S., Tinbergen, J. and Mateman, C. (1997) Extreme adaptive modification in sex ratio of the Seychelles warbler's eggs. Nature, 385, 522-525.
88. Komdeur, J., Magrath, M.J.L. and Krackow, S. (2002) Pre-ovulation control of hatchling sex ratio in the Seychelles warbler. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B, 269, 1067-1072.
89. Krackow, S. (1995) Potential mechanisms for sex ratio adjustment in mammals and birds. Biol. Rev., 70, 225-241.
90. Krackow, S. (1999). Avian sex ratio distortions: the myth of maternal control. In: 22nd International Ornithological Congress, vol. 1, Adams, N. and Slotow, R. (eds.) BirdLife South Africa, Durban, Johannesburg, pp. 425-433.
91. Krackow, S. (2002) Why parental sex ratio manipulation is rare in higher vertebrates? Ethology, 108, 1041-1056.
92. Krebs, E.A., Green, D.J., Double, M.C. and Griffiths, R. (2002) Laying date and laying sequence influence the sex ratio of crimson rosella broods. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 51, 447-454.
93. Lezalova, R., Tkadlec, E., Obornik, M., Simek, J. and Honza, M. (2005) Should males come first? The relationship between offspring hatching order and sex in the black-headed gull Larus ridibundus. J. Avian Biol., 36, 478-483.
94. Love, O.P., Chin, E.H., Wynne-Edwards, K.E. and Williams, T.D. (2005) Stress hormones: A link between maternal condition and sex-biased reproductive investment. Am. Nat., 166, 751-766.
95. Lovell, T.M., Gladwell, R.T., Groome, N.P. and Knight, P.G. (2003) Ovarian follicle development in the laying hen is accompanied by divergent changes in inhibin A, inhibin B, activin A and follistatin production in granulosa and theca layers. J. Endocrin., 177, 45-55.
96. Magrath, M.J.L., Green, D.J. and Komdeur, J. (2002) Sex allocation in the sexually monomorphic fairy martin. J. Avian Biol., 33, 260-268.
97. Magrath, M.J.L., Brouwer, L. and Komdeur, J. (2003) Egg size and laying order in relation to offspring sex in the extreme sexually size dimorphic brown songlark, Cinclorhamphus cruralis. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 54, 240-248.
98. McCann, S.M., Karanth, S., Mastronardi, C.A., Dees, W.L., Childs, G., Miller, B., Sower, S. and Yu, W.H. (2001) Control of gonadotropin secretion by follicle-stimulating hormone-releasing factor, luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone, and leptin. Arch. Med. Res., 32, 476-485.
99. McIntosh, R.R., Kats, R., Berg, M., Komdeur, J. and Elgar, M.A. (2003) Breeding ecology and bias in offspring sex ratio in little grassbirds (Megalurus gramineus). Aust. J. Zool., 51, 505-514.
100. McQueen, A.H., McBride, D., Miele, G., Bird, A.P. and Clinton, M. (2001) Dosage compensation in birds. Current Biol., 11, 253-257.
101. Mead, P.S., Morton, M.L. and Fish, B.E. (1987) Sexual dimorphism in egg size and implications regarding facultative manipulation of sex in mountain white-crowned sparrows. Condor, 89, 798-803.
102. Melnychuk, V.L., Robinson, F.E., Renema, R.A., Hardin, R.T. and Emmerson, D.A. (1999) Effects of lighting program on reproductive development of female large white turkeys. Can. J. Anim. Sci., 79, 149-155.
103. Müller, W., Eising, C.M., Dijkstra, C. and Groothuis, T.G.G. (2002) Sex differences in yolk hormones depend on maternal social status in Leghorn chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus). Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B, 269, 2249-2255.
104. Müller, W., Kalmbach, E., Eising, C.M., Groothuis, T.G.G. and Dijkstra, C. (2005a) Experimentally manipulated brood sex ratios: growth and survival in the black-headed gull (Larus ridibundus), a sexually dimorphic species. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 59, 313-320.
105. Müller, W., Groothuis, T.G.G., Eising, C.M., Daan, S. and Dijkstra, C. (2005b) Within clutch co-variation of egg mass and sex in the black-headed gull. J. Evol. Biol., 18, 661-668.
106. Nakagawa, S. (2004) Is avian sex determination unique?: clues from a warbler and from chickens. Trends Genet., 20, 479-480.
107. Neuhäuser, M. (2003) Further evidence for Emlen's hypothesis from two parrot species. New Zeal. J. Zool., 30, 221-225.
108. Nicklas, R.B. (1997) How cells get the right chromosomes. Science, 275, 632-637.
109. Norris, D.O. (1997) Vertebrate Endocrinology. Academic Press, San Diego.
110. Oddie, K. (1998) Sex discrimination before birth. Trends Ecol. Evol., 13, 130-131.
111. Oddie, K.R. and Reim, C. (2002) Egg sex ratio and paternal traits: using within-individual comparisons. Behav. Ecol., 13, 503-510.
112. Ohkubo, T., Tanaka, M. and Nakashima, K. (2000) Structure and tissue distribution of chicken leptin receptor (cOb-R) mRNA B.B.A.-Gene. Struct. Expr., 1491, 303-308.
113. Olsen, M. and Fraps, R.M. (1950) Maturation changes in the hen's ovum. J. Exp. Zool., 144, 475-487.
114. Paczoska-Eliasiewicz, H.E., Gertler, A., Proszkowiec, M., Proudman, J., Hrabia, A., Sechman, A., Mika, M., Jacek, T., Cassy, S., Raver, N. and Rzasa, J. (2003) Attenuation by leptin of the effects of fasting on ovarian function in hens (Gallus domesticus). Reproduction, 126, 739-751.
115. Palmer, A.R. (2000) Quasireplication and the contract of error: lessons from sex ratios, heritabilities and fluctuating asymmetry. A. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 31, 441-480.
116. Palmer, S.S. and Bahr, J.M. (1992) Follicle stimulating hormone increases serum oestradiol-17 beta concentrations, number of growing follicles and yolk deposition in aging hens (Gallus gallus domesticus) with decreased egg production. Br. Poultry Sci., 33, 403-14.
117. Pen, I. (2000) Sex Allocation in a Life History Context. PhD Thesis. Groningen Univesity, Groningen.
118. Pen, I., Weissing, F.J. and Daan, S. (1999) Seasonal sex ratio trend in the European kestrel: an ESS analysis. Am. Nat., 153, 384-397.
119. Pérez, C., Velando, A. and Domínguez, J. (2006) Parental food conditions influence sex-specific embryo mortality in the yellow-legged gull (Larus michaellis). J. Ornithol., in press.
120. Petrie, M., Schwabl, H., Brande-Lavridsen, N. and Burke, T. (2001) Sex differences in avian yolk hormone levels. Nature, 412, 498.489.
121. Petronczki, M., Siomos, M.F. and Nasmyth, K. (2003) Un menage a quatre: The molecular biology of chromosome segregation in meiosis. Cell, 112, 423-440.
122. Pike, T.W. (2005) Sex ratio manipulation in response to maternal condition in pigeons: evidence for pre-ovulatory follicle selection. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 58, 407-413.
123. Pike, T.W. and Petrie, M. (2003) Potential mechanisms of avian sex manipulation. Biol. Rev., 78, 553-574.
124. Pike, T.W. and Petrie, M. (2005a) Offspring sex ratio is related to paternal train elaboration and yolk corticosterone in peafowl. Biol. Lett., 1, 204-207.
125. Pike, T.W. and Petrie, M. (2005b) Maternal body condition and plasma hormones affect offspring sex ratio in peafowl. Anim. Behav., 70, 745-751.
126. Pike, T.W. and Petrie, M. (2006) Experimental evidence that corticosterone affects offspring sex ratios in quail. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B, 273, 1093-1098.
127. Pilz, K.M., Adkins-Regan, E. and Schwabl, H. (2005) No sex difference in yolk steroid concentrations of avian eggs at laying. Biol. Lett., 1, 318-321.
128. Polo, V., Veiga, J.P., Cordero, P.J., Vinuela, J. and Monaghan, P. (2004) Female starlings adjust primary sex ratio in response to aromatic plants in the nest. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B, 271, 1929-1933.
129. Reiss, M.J. (1987) Evolutionary conflict over the control of offspring sex ratio. J. Theor. Biol., 125, 25-39.
130. Renema, R.A., Robinson, F.E., Melnychuk, V.L., Hardin, R.T., Bagley, L.G., Emmerson, D.A. and Blackman, J.R. (1995) The use of feed restriction for improving reproductive traits in male-line large white turkey hens. 2. Ovary morphology and laying traits. Poult. Sci., 74, 102-120.
131. Robinson, F.E., Renema, R.A., Bouvier, L., Feddes, J.J.R., Wilson, J.L., Newcombe, M. and McKay, R.I. (1998) Effects of photostimulatory lighting and feed allocation in female broiler breeders 1. Reproductive development. Can. J. Anim. Sci., 78, 603-613.
132. Robinson, F.E., Fasenko, G.M. and Renema, R.A. (2003) Optimizing Chick Production in Broiler Breeders. Spotted Cow Press, Edmonton, Canada.
133. Romanoff, A.J. (1960) The Avian Embryo. MacMillian, New York.
134. Royle, N.J., Surai, P.F., McCartney, R.J. and Speake, B.K. (1999) Parental investment and egg yolk lipid composition in gulls. Funct. Ecol., 13, 298-306.
135. Royle, N.J., Surai, P.F. and Hartley, I.R. (2003) The effect of variation in dietary intake on maternal deposition of antioxidants in zebra finch eggs. Funct. Ecol., 17, 472-481.
136. Rubolini, D., Romano, M., Martinelli, R. and Saino, N. (2006) Effects of elevated yolk testosterone levels on survival, growth and immunity of male and female yellow-legged gull chicks. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 59, 344-352.
137. Rutkowska, J. and Cichón, M. (2006) Maternal testosterone affects the primary sex ratio and offspring survival in zebra finches. Anim. Behav., in press.
138. Rutstein, A.N., Slater, P.J.B. and Graves, J.A. (2004) Diet quality and resource allocation in the zebra finch. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B, 271, S286-S289.
139. Rutstein, A.N., Gilbert, L., Slater, P.J.B. and Graves, J.A. (2005a) Sex-specific patterns of yolk androgen allocation depend on maternal diet in the zebra finch. Behav. Ecol., 16, 62-69.
140. Rutstein, A.N., Gorman, H.E., Arnold, K.E., Gilbert, L., Orr, K.J., Adam, A., Nager, R. and Graves, J.A. (2005b) Sex allocation in response to paternal attractiveness in the zebra finch. Behav. Ecol., 16, 763-769.
141. Ryan, N.K., Van der Hoek, K.H., Robertson, S.A. and Norman, R.J. (2003) Leptin and leptin receptor expression in the rat ovary. Endocrinology, 144, 5006-5013.
142. Salomons, H.M., Muller, W., Dijkstra, C., Eising, C.M. and Verhulst, S. (2006) No sexual differences in embryonic period in jackdaws Corvus monedula and black-headed gulls Larus ridibundus. J. Avian Biol., 37, 19-22.
143. Schoech, S.J., Mumme, R.L. and Wingfield, J.C. (1997) Corticosterone, reproductive status, and body mass in a cooperative breeder, the Florida scrub-jay (Aphelocoma coerulescens). Physiol. Zool., 70, 68-73.
144. Sheldon, B.C., Merila, J., Lindgren, G. and Ellegren, H. (1998) Gender and environmental sensitivity in nestling collared flycatchers. Ecology, 79, 1939-1948.
145. Silverin, B., Kikuchi, M. and Ishii, S. (1997) Seasonal changes in follicle-stimulating hormone in free-living great tits. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol., 108, 366-373.
146. Sockman, K.W. and Schwabl, H. (1999) Daily estradiol and progesterone levels relative to laying and onset of incubation in canaries. Gen. Comp. Endocr., 114, 257-268.
147. Sockman, K.W., Schwabl, H. and Sharp, P.J. (2000) The role of prolactin in the regulation of clutch size and onset of incubation behavior in the American kestrel. Horm. Behav., 38, 168-176.
148. Stearns, S.C. (1992) The evolution of life histories. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
149. Suorsa, P., Helle, H., Huhta, E., Jantti, A., Nikula, A. and Hakkarainen, H. (2003) Forest fragmentation is associated with primary brood sex ratio in the treecreeper (Certhia familiaris). Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B, 270, 2215-2222.
150. Swanson, C.P., Merz, T. and Young, W.J. (1981) Cytogenetics: the Chromosome in Division, Inheritance and Evolution. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
151. Thuman, K.A., Widemo, F. and Griffith, S.C. (2003) Condition-dependent sex allocation in a lek-breeding wader, the ruff (Philomachus pugnax). Mol. Ecol., 12, 213-218.
152. Török, J., Michl, G., Garamszegi, L.Z. and Barna, J. (2003) Repeated inseminations required for natural fertility in a wild bird population. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B, 270, 641-647.
153. Van den Burg, A.B., Van Diermen, J., Muskens, G.J.D.M., Van Rijn, S. and Zollinger, R. (2002) Sex ratio comparisons between nestlings and dead embryos of the Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus. Ibis, 144, E39-E44.
154. Veiga, J.P., Viñuela, J., Cordero, P.J., Aparicio, J.M. and Polo, V. (2004) Experimentally increased testosterone affects social rank and primary sex ratio in the spotless starling. Horm. Behav., 46, 47-53.
155. Velando, A. (2002) Experimental manipulation of maternal effort produces differential effect on sons and daughters. Implications for adaptive sex ratios in blue-footed booby. Behav. Ecol., 13, 443-449.
156. Velando, A. and Alonso-Alvarez, C. (2003) Differentia] body condition regulation by males and females in response to experimental manipulations of brood size and parental effort in the blue-footed Booby. J. Anim. Ecol., 72, 846-856.
157. von Engelhardt, N., Dijkstra, C., Daan, S. and Groothuis, T.G.G. (2004) Effects of 17-beta-estradiol treatment of female zebra finches on offspring sex ratio and survival. Horm. Behav., 45, 306-313.
158. West, S.A. and Sheldon, B.C. (2002) Constraints in the evolution of sex ratio adjustment. Science, 295, 1685-1688.
159. West, S.A., Reece, S.E. and Sheldon, B.C. (2002) Sex ratios. Heredity, 88, 117-124.
160. Whittingham, L.A., Dunn, P.O. and Nooker, J.K. (2005) Maternal influences on brood sex ratios: an experimental study in tree swallows. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B, 272, 1775-1780.
161. Yamaguchi, N., Kawano, K.K., Eguchi, K. and Yahara, T. (2004) Facultative sex ratio adjustment in response to male tarsus length in the Varied Tit Parus varius. Ibis, 146, 108-113.
162. Yang, P.X., Arail, K.Y., Jin, G., Watanabe, W.Z., Groome, N.P.C. and Taya, K. (2001) Preovulatory follicles in the ovary as the source of circulating inhibin in the duck. Gen. Comp. Endocrin., 121, 156-162.
163. Yoshimura, Y., Bahr, J.M., Okamoto, T. and Tiamura, T. (1993) Effects of progesterone on the ultrastructure of preovulatory follicles of hypophysectomized chickens: possible roles of progesterone in the regulation of follicular function. Jap. Poultry Sci., 30, 270-281.
164. Yoshimura, Y., Koike, K. and Okamoto, T. (2000) Immunolocalization of progesterone and estrogen receptors in the sperm storage tubules of laying and diethylstilbestrol-injected immature hens. Poult. Sci., 79, 94-98.
165. Young, R.L. and Badyaev, A.V. (2004) Evolution of sex-biased maternal effects in birds: 1. Sex-specific resource allocation among simultaneously growing oocytes. J. Evol. Biol., 17, 1355-1366.
166. Zavaleta, D. and Ogasawara, F. (1987) A review of the mechanism of the release of spermatozoa from storage tubules in the fowl and turkey oviduct. World's Poultry Sci. J., 43, 132-139.
167. Zhang, Y., Proenca, R., Maffei, M., Barone, M., Leopold, L. and Friedman, J.M. (1994) Positional cloning of the mouse obese gene and its human homologue. Nature, 372, 425-432.