Diagnosis of heart failure in primary care

Heart Failure Reviews

Volumn 11, Issue 2, 2006, Pages 95-107

  Fonseca, Cândida ^a  

^a UNIVERSIDADE NOVA DE LISBOA   (Portugal)

Author keywords

Diagnosis; Heart failure; Primary care

Indexed keywords

ATRIAL NATRIURETIC FACTOR; BRAIN NATRIURETIC PEPTIDE; CREATININE; DIGOXIN; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DIURETIC AGENT; ELECTROLYTE; GLUCOSE; LIVER ENZYME;

AGING; ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; ANAMNESIS; ANKLE EDEMA; BLOOD ANALYSIS; BLOOD CELL COUNT; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CIGARETTE SMOKING; CLINICAL TRIAL; CONTINUING EDUCATION; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DIAGNOSTIC TEST; DISEASE COURSE; DOPPLER ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; DOPPLER FLOWMETRY; DRUG UTILIZATION; DYSPNEA; ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY; EXERCISE TEST; GENERAL PRACTICE; GENERAL PRACTITIONER; HEALTH CARE UTILIZATION; HEART CATHETERIZATION; HEART FAILURE; HEART INDEX; HEART INFARCTION; HEART LEFT VENTRICLE EJECTION FRACTION; HEART SCINTISCANNING; HEART SOUND; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; INCIDENCE; INTERMETHOD COMPARISON; JUGULAR VEIN; LUNG CAPILLARY PRESSURE; LUNG DISEASE; MEDICAL DECISION MAKING; PAROXYSMAL DYSPNEA; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PATIENT CARE; PATIENT REFERRAL; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PREDICTION; PREVALENCE; PRIMARY MEDICAL CARE; QUESTIONNAIRE; RELIABILITY; REVIEW; SCORING SYSTEM; SCREENING TEST; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; SYMPTOM; THORAX RADIOGRAPHY; THYROID FUNCTION TEST; URINALYSIS; VEIN DILATATION;

CARDIAC OUTPUT, LOW; DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES, CARDIOVASCULAR; GUIDELINE ADHERENCE; HUMANS; PHYSICIAN'S PRACTICE PATTERNS; PRIMARY HEALTH CARE; UNITED STATES;

EID: 33747873317     PISSN: 13824147     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10741-006-9481-0     Document Type: Review

References (111)

1. Davies MK, Hobbs FDR, Davis RC, et al. Prevalence of left-ventricular systolic dysfunction and heart failure in the Echocardiographic Heart of England screening study: A population based study. Lancet 2001;358:439-44.
2. McDonagh TA, Morrison CE, Lawrence A, et al. Symptomatic and asymptomatic left ventricular systolic dysfunction in an urban population. Lancet 1997;350:829-33.
3. Ceia F, Fonseca C, Mota T, et al. Prevalence of chronic heart failure in southwestern Europe: The EPICA study. Eur J Heart Fail 2002;4:531-9.
4. Cleland JGF, Khand A, Clarck AL. The heart failure epidemic: Exactly how big is it? Eur Heart J 2001;22:623-6.
5. McKee PA, Castelli WP, McNamara PM, Kannell WB. The natural history of heart failure: The Framingham study. N Engl J Med 1971;285:1441-6.
6. Ho KKL, Pinsky JL, Kannell WB. The epidemiology of heart failure: The Framingham study. J Am Coll Cardiol 1993;22:6A-13A.
7. Davis RC, Hobbs FDR, Kenkre J, Roalfe AK, McLeod S, Hare R, et al. Quality of life in heart failure and other conditions. Eur Heart J 2002;23:1867-76.
8. McMurray J. Hart W, Rhodes G. An evaluation of the economic cost of heart failure to the National Health Service in the United Kingdom. Br J Med Econ 1993;6:99-110.
9. O'Connell JB, Bristow MR. Economic impact of heart failure in the United States: Time for a different approach. J Heart Lung Transplant 1994;13(suppl 4):S107-12.
10. Wheeldom NM, MacDonald TM, Flucker CJ, Mckendrick AD, Mcdevitt DG, Struthers AD. Echocardiography in chronic heart failure in the community. Q J Med 1993;86:17-23.
11. Hobbs FDR, Jones MI, Allan TF, et al. European survey of primary care physician perceptions, on heart failure diagnosis and management (Euro-HF). Eur Heart J 2000;21:1877-87.
12. Hobbs FDR, Korewicki J, Cleland JGF, Eastaugh J, Freemantle N on behalf of the IMPROVEMENT Investigators. The diagnosis of heart failure in European primary care: The IMPROVEMENT programme survey of perception and practice. Eur J Heart Fail 2005;7:768-79.
13. Fuat A, Hungin AP, Murphy JJ. Barriers to accurate diagnosis and effective management of heart failure in primary care: Qualitative study. BMJ 2003;326:196.
14. Remes J, Miettinen H, Reunanen A, Pyoralaa K. Validity of clinical diagnosis of heart failure in primary health care. Eur Heart J 1991;12:315-21.
15. Francis CM, Caruana L, Kearney P, et al. Open access echocardiography in management of heart failure in the community. Br Med J 1995;310:634-6.
16. Davie AP, Francis CM, Caruana L, Sutherland GR, McMurray JJV. Assessing diagnosis in heart failure: Which features are any use? Q J Med 1997;90:335-9.
17. Cowie MR, Wood DA, Coats AJS, et al. Incidence and aetiology of heart failure. A population based study. Eur Heart J 1999;20:421-8.
18. Fonseca C, Morais H, Mota T, et al. The diagnosis of heart failure in primary care: Value of symptoms and signs. Eur J Heart Fail 2004;6:795-800.
19. Cowie MR, Struthers AD, Wood DA, et al. Value of natriuretic peptides in assessment of patients with possible new heart failure in primary care. Lancet 1997;350:1349-53.
20. Mosterd A, Hoes AW, de Bruijne MC, et al. Prevalence of heart failure and left ventricular dysfunction in the general population. The Rotterdam Study. Eur Heart J 1999;20:447-55.
21. Remes J, Reunanen A, Aromaa A, Pyorala K. Incidence of heart failure in eastern Finland: A population-based surveillance study. Eur Heart J 1992;13:588-93.
22. Fox KF, Cowie MR, and Wood DA, et al. Coronary artery disease as the cause of incident heart failure in the population. Eur Heart J 2001;22:228-36.
23. ACC/AHA Guidelines for the evaluation and management of chronic heart failure in adRlt: Executive summary: report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee to Revise the 1995 Guidelines for the Evaluation and Management of Heart Failure). Circulation 2001;104:2996-3007.
24. Giuli F, Khaw KT, Cowie MR, Sutton GC, Ferrari R. Poole-Wilson FA. Incidence and outcome of persons with a clinical diagnosis of heart failure in general practice population of 696,884 in the United Kingdom. Eur J Heart Fail 2005;7:295-302.
25. Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of heart failure: Executive summary (update 2005). The Task Force for the Diagnosis and treatment of heart failure of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur Heart J 2005;26:1115-40.
26. Ceia F, Fonseca C, Mota T, et al. On behalf of the EPICA investigators. Epidemiology of heart failure in mainland Portugal: New data from the EPICA study. Rev Port Cardiol 2004;23(suppl. III):15-22.
27. Dahlström U. Frequent non-cardiac comorbidities in patients with chronic heart failure. Eur J Heart Fail 2005;7:309-16.
28. Harlan WR, Oberman A, Grim R, Rosati RA. Chronic congestive heart failure in coronary artery disease: Clinical criteria. Ann Intern Med 1977;86:133-8.
29. Chakko S, Woska D, Martinez H, et al. Clinical, radiographic, and haemodynamic correlations in chronic congestive heart failure: conflicting results may lead to inappropriate care. Am J Med 1991;90:353-9.
30. Stevenson LW, Perloff JK. The limited reliability of physical signs for estimating hemodynamics in chronic heart failure. JAMA 1989;261:884-8.
31. Echeverria HH, Bilsker MS, Myerburg RJ, Kessler KM. Congestive heart failure: Ecochardiographic insights. Am J Med 1983;75:750-5.
32. Butman SM, Ewy GA, Standen JR, Kern KB Hahn E. Bedside cardiovascular examination in patients with severe chronic heart failure: Importance of rest or inducible jugular venous distension. J Am Coll Cardiol 1993;22:968-74.
33. Marantz PR, Tobin JM, Wassertheil-Smoller S, et al. The relationship between left ventricular systolic function and congestive heart failure diagnosed by clinical criteria. Circulation 1988;77:607-12.
34. Sparrow N, Adlam D, Cowley A, Hampton JR. The diagnosis of heart failure in general practice: Implications for the UK National Service Framework. Eur J Heart Fail 2003;5:349-54.
35. Cleland JGF, Swedberg K, Follath F, Komajda M, Cohen Solal A, Aguilar JC, Dietz R, Gavazzi A, Hobbs R, Korewicki J, Madeira HC, Moiseyev VS, Preda I, van Gilst WH, Widimsky J, Freemantle N, Eastaugh J, Mason J, Study Group on Diagnosis of the Working Group on Heart Failure of the European Society of Cardiology. The EuroHeart Failure survey programme - a survey on the quality of care among patients with heart failure in Europe. Part 1: Patient characteristics and diagnosis. Eur Heart J 2003;24:442-63.
36. Banerjee P, Banerjee T, Khand A, et al. Diastolic heart failure-neglected or misdiagnosed? J Am Coll Cardiol 2002;39:138-41.
37. Thomas JT, Kelly RF, Thomas SJ, Stamos TD, Albasha K, Parrillo JE, Calvin JE. Utility of history, physical examination, electrocardiogram, and chest radiograph for differentiating normal from decreased systolic function in patients with heart failure. Am J Med 2002;112:437-45.
38. Knudson CW, Riis JS, Finsen AV, et al. Diagnostic value of rapid test for B-type natriuretic peptide in patients presenting with acute dyspnoea: Effect of age and gender. Eur J Heart Fail 2004;6:55-62.
39. Ceia F, Fonseca C, Mota T, et al. Aetiology co-morbidity and drug therapy of chronic heart failure in the real world: The EPICA substudy. Eur J Heart Fail 2004;6:801-6.
40. Vasan RS, Larson MG, Benjamin EJ, Evans JC, Reiss CK, Levy D. Congestive heart failure in subjects with normal versus reduced left ventricular ejection fraction: Prevalence and mortality, in a population-based cohort. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999;33:1948-55.
41. Devereux RB, Roman MJ, Liu JE, et al. Congestive heart failure despite normal left ventricular systolic function in a population-based sample: the Strong Heart study. Am J Cardiol 2000;86:1090-96.
42. O'Neill TW, Barry M, Smith M, Graham IM. Diagnostic value of the apex beat. Lancet 1989;1:410-1.
43. McKee PA, Castelli WP, McNamara PM, et al. The natural history of congestive heart failure: The Framingham study. N Engl J Med 1971;26:1441-6.
44. Eriksson H, Caidahl K, Larsson B, et al. Cardiac and pulmonary causes of dyspnoea. A validation of a scoring test for clinical-epidemiological use. The Study of Men Born in 1913. Eur Heart J 1987;8:1007-14.
45. Eriksson H, Svardsudd K, Caidhal K, et al. Early heart failure in the population. The Study of Men Born in 1913. Acta Med Scand 1988;223:197-209.
46. Schocken DD, Arrieta MI, Leaverton PE, Ross EA. Prevalence and mortality of congestive heart failure in the United States. J Am Coll Cardiol 1992;20:301-6.
47. Carlson KJ, Lee DC-S, Goroll AH, Leahy M, Johnson RA. An analysis of physicians' reasons for prescribing long-term digitalis therapy in outpatients. J Chron Dis 1985;38:733-9.
48. Harlan W, Oberman A, Grimm R, Rosati RA. Chronic congestive heart failure in coronary artery disease: Clinical criteria. Ann Intern Med 1977;86:133-8.
49. Walma EP, Hoes AW, Prins A, Boukes FS, van der Does E. Withdrawing long-term diuretic therapy in the elderly: A study in general practice in the Netherlands. Fam Med 1993;25:661-4.
50. Gheorghiade M, Beller GA. Effects of discontinuing maintenance digoxin therapy in patients with ischemic heart disease and congestive heart failure in sinus rhythm. Am J Cardiol 1983;51:1243-50.
51. Marantz PR, Tobin JN, Wassertheil-Smoller S, et al. The relationship between left ventricular and congestive heart failure diagnosed by clinical criteria. Circulation 1988;77:607-12.
52. Mosterd A, Deckers JW, Hoes AW, et al. Classification of heart failure in population based research systolic function: An assessment of six heart failure scores. Eur Heart J 1997;13:491-502.
53. Fonseca C, Oliveira AG, Mota T, et al. Evaluation of the performance and concordance of clinical questionnaires for the diagnosis of heart failure in primary care. Eur J Heart Fail 2004;6:813-20.
54. Elkman I, Cleland JG, Andersson B, Swedberg K. Exploring symptoms in chronic heart failure. Eur J Heart Fail 2005;7:699-703.
55. Ekman I, Cleland JCF, Swedberg K, Charlesworth A, Metra M, Poole-Wilson PA. Symptoms in patients with heart failure are prognostic predictors. Insights from COMET. J Card Fail 2005;11:288-92.
56. Rihal CS, Davies KB, Kennedy JW, et al. The utility of clinical electrocardiographic, and roentgenographic variables in the prediction of left ventricular function. Am J Cardiol 1995;75:220-3.
57. Davie AP, Francis CM, Love MP, et al. Value of the electrocardiogram in identifying heart failure due to left ventricular systolic dysfunction. Br Med J 1996;312:22.
58. Khunti K, Squire I, Abrams KR, Sutton AJ. Accuracy of a 12 lead electrocardiogram in screening patients with suspected heart failure for open access echocardiography: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Heart Fail 2004;6:571-6.
59. Khandekar S, Murphy JJ, Bossingham CM. Value of ECGs in identifying heart failure due to left ventricular systolic dysfunction. Echocardiography is still necessary. Br Med J 1996;312:1160.
60. Murphy JJ, Frain JP, Ramesh P, Siddiqui RN, Bossingham CM. Open-access echocardiography to general practitioners for suspected heart failure. Br Med J 1996;46:475-6.
61. Sandler DA, Steeds RP, Hadfield JW. Opening access to echocardiography to general practitioners in North Derbyshire. Br J Cardiol 2000;7:94-100.
62. Lindsay MM, Goodfield NE, Hogg KJ, Dunn FG. Optimising direct access ECHO referral in suspected heart failure. Scott Med J 2000;45:43-4.
63. Fonseca C, Mota T, Morais H, et al. The value of the electrocardiogram and the chest X-ray for confirming or refuting a suspected diagnosis of heart failure in the community. Eur J Heart Fail 2004;6:807-12.
64. Sparrow N, Adlam D, Cowley A, Hampton JR. Difficulties in introducing the National Service Framework for heart failure into general practice in the UK. Eur J Heart Fail 2003;5:355-61.
65. Clark AL, Coats AJ. Unreliability of cardiothoracic ratio as a marker of left ventricular impairment: Comparison with radionuclide ventriculography and echocardiography. Postgrad Med J 2000;76:289-91.
66. Petrie MC, McMurray JJV. It cannot be cardiac failure because the heart is not enlarged on the chest X-ray. Eur J Heart Fail 2003;5:117-9.
67. The Digitalis Investigation Group: The effect of digoxin on mortality and morbidity in patients with heart failure. N Engl J Med 1997;336:525-33.
68. Dahlström U. Frequent non-cardiac comorbidities in patients with chronic heart failure. Eur J Heart Fail 2005;7:309-16.
69. Levin ER, Gardner DG, Samson WK. Natriuretic peptides. N Eng J Med 1998;339:321-8.
70. McDonagh TA, Robb SD, Murdoch DR, et al. Biochemical detection of left-ventricular systolic dysfunction. Lancet 1998;351:9-13.
71. Bettencourt P. Ferreira A, Pardal-Oliveira N, et al. Clinical significance of brain natriuretic peptide in patients with post-myocardial infarction. Clin Cardiol 2000;23:921-7.
72. Choy AM, Darbar D, Lang CC, et al. Detection of left ventricular dysfunction after acute myocardial infarction: Comparison of clinical, echocardiographic, and neurohormonal methods. Br Heart J 1994;72:16-22.
73. Valli N, Georges A, Corcuff JB, Barat JL, Bordenave L. Assessment of brain natriuretic peptide in patients with suspected heart failure: comparison with radionuclide ventriculography data. Clin Chim Acta 2001;306:19-26.
74. Vasan RS, Benjamin EJ, Larson MG, et al. Plasma natriuretic peptides for community screening for left ventricular hypertrophy and systolic dysfunction: The Framingham Heart Study. JAMA 2002;288:1252-9.
75. Hutcheon SD, Gillespie ND, Struthers AD, McMurdo ME. B-type natriuretic peptide in the diagnosis of cardiac disease in elderly day hospital patients. Age Ageing 2002;31:295-301.
76. Landray MJ, Lehman R, Arnold I. Measuring brain natriuretic peptide in suspected left ventricular systolic dysfunction in general practice: cross-sectional study. Br Med J 2000;320:985-6.
77. Smith H, Pickering RM, Struthers A, Simpson I, Mant D. Biochemical diagnosis of ventricular dysfunction in elderly patients in general practice: Observational study. Br Med J 2000;320:906-8.
78. Davis M, Espiner E, Richards G, et al. Plasma brain natriuretic peptide in assessment of acute dyspnoea. Lancet 1994;343:440-4.
79. Hobbs F, Davis R, Roalfe A, Hare R, Davies M, Kenkre J. Reliability of N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide assay in diagnosis of heart failure: Cohort study in representative and high risk community populations. Br Med J 2002;324:1498-500.
80. Maisel AS, Krishnaswamy P, Nowak RM, et al. Rapid measurement of B-type natriuretic peptide in the emergency diagnosis of heart failure. N Engl J Med 2002;347:161-7.
81. Krishnaswamy P, Lubien E, Clopton P, et al. Utility of B- natriuretic peptide levels in identifying patients with left ventricular systolic or diastolic dysfunction. Am J Med 2001;111:274-9.
82. Pfister R, Scholz M, Wielckens K, Erdmann E, Schneider CA. Use of NT-proBNP in routine testing and comparison to BNP. Eur J Heart Fail 2004;6:289-93.
83. Doust JA, Glasziou PP, Pietrzak E, Dobson AJ. A systematic review of the diagnostic accuracy of natriuretic peptides for heart failure. Arch Intern Med 2004;164:1978-84.
84. Fonseca C, Sarmento PM, Minez A, et al. Comparative value of BNP and NT-proBNP in diagnosis of heart failure. Rev Port Cardiol 2004;23:979-91.
85. Dahlström U. Can natriuretic peptides be used for the diagnosis of diastolic heart failure? Eur J Heart Fail 2004;6:281-7.
86. Fonseca C, Ceia F, Mota T, et al. The diagnostic challenge of heart failure with preserved systolic function in primary care setting. Eur Heart J 2003;24(suppl 1):259.
87. Talwar S, Siebenhofer A, Williams B, Ng LL. Influence of hypertension, left ventricular hypertrophy, and left ventricular systolic dysfunction on plasma N-terminal pro-BNP. Heart 2000;83:278-82.
88. Bayés-Genís A, Santaló-Bel M, Zapico-Muniz E, et al. N-terminal probrain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) in the emergency diagnosis and in-hospital monitoring of patients with dyspnoea and ventricular dysfunction. Eur J Heart Fail 2004;301-8.
89. Seino Y, Ogawa A, Yamashita T, et al. Application of NT-proBNP and BNP measurements in cardiac care: A more discerning marker for the detection and evaluation of heart failure. Eur J Heart Fail 2004;6:295-300.
90. Clerico A, Del Ry S, Maffei S, Prontera C, Endin M, Giannesi D. The circulating levels of cardiac natriuretic hormones in healthy adults: effects of age and sex. Clin Chem Lab Med 2002;40:31-7.
91. Raymond I, Groenning BA, Hildebrant PR, et al. The influence of age, sex and other variables on the plasma levels of N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide in a large sample of the general population. Heart 2003;89:745-51.
92. Vesely L. Natriuretic peptides and acute renal failure. Am J Renal Physiol 2003;285:F167-77.
93. McCullough PA, Sandberg KR. B-type natriuretic peptide and renal disease. Heart Fail Rev 2003;8:355-8.
94. McCullough PA, Omland T, Maisel AS. B-type natriuretic peptides: A diagnostic breakthrough for clinicians. Rev Cardiol Vasc Med 2003;4:72-80.
95. Nielsen OW, Kirk V, Bay M, Boesgaard S, Nielson H. Value of N-terminal pro brain natriuretic peptide in the elderly: Data from the prospective Copenhagen Hospital Heart Failure study (CHHF). Eur J Heart Fail 2004;6:275-79.
96. McDonagh TA, Holmer S, Raymond I, Luchner A, Hildebrant P, Dargie HJ. NT-proBNP and the diagnosis of heart failure: A pooled analysis of three European epidemiological studies. Eur J Heart Fail 2004;6:269-73.
97. Luchner A, Hengstenberg C, Lowel H, et al. N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide after myocardial infarction: A marker of cardio-renal function. Hypertension 2002;39:99-104.
98. Raymond I, Petersen R, Steensgaard-Hansen F, et al. Prevalence of impaired left ventricular systolic function and heart failure in middle aged and elderly urban population segment of Copenhagen. Heart 2003;89:1422-9.
99. McCullough PA, Nowak RM, McCord J, et al. B-type natriuretic peptide and clinical judgment in emergency diagnosis of heart failure: Analysis from breathing Not Properly (BNP) Multinational Study. Circulation 2002;106:416-22.
100. Schiller NB, Shah PM, Crawford M, et al. Recommendations for quantitation of the left ventricle by Echocardiography Committee on standards, Subcommittee on quantitation of two-dimensional echocardiograms. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 1989;2:358-67.
101. Teichholz LE, Kreulen T, Herman MV, Gorlin R. Problems in echocardiographic volume determinations: Echocardiographic-angiographic correlations in the presence or absence of asynergy. Am J Cardiol 1976;37:7-11.
102. Berning J, Rokkedal NJ, Launbjerg J, et al. Rapid estimation of left ventricular ejection fraction in acute myocardial infarction by echocardiographic wall motion analysis. Cardiology 1992;80:257-66.
103. Bonow RO, Carabello BA, de Leon AC, et al. Guidelines for the management of patients with valvular heart disease. A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation 1998;98:1949-84.
104. European Study Group on Diastolic Heart Failure. How to diagnose diastolic heart failure. Eur Heart J 1998;19:990-1003.
105. Vasan RS, Levy D. Defining diastolic heart failure. A call for more standardized diagnostic criteria. Circulation 2000;101:2118-21.
106. Benjamin EJ, Levy D, Anderson KM, et al. Determinants of Doppler indexes of left ventricular diastolic dysfunction in normal subjects (the Framingham Heart Study). Am J Cardiol 1992;70:508-15.
107. Iwase M, Nagata K, Izawa H, et al. Age-related changes in left and right ventricular filling velocity profiles and their relationship in normal subjects. Am Heart J 1993;126:419-26.
108. Cahill JM, Horan M, Quigley P, Maurer BJ, McDonald K. Doppler-echocardiographic indices of diastolic function in heart failure admissions with preserved left ventricular systolic function. Eur J Heart Failure 2002;4:473-8.
109. Jarnert C, Mejhert M, Ring M, Persson H, Edner M. Doppler tissue imaging in congestive heart failure patients due to diastolic or systolic dysfunction: A comparison with Doppler echocardiography and the atrio-ventricular plane displacement technique. Eur J Heart Failure 2000;2:151-60.
110. Vinereanu D, Nicolaides E, Tweddel AC, Fraser AG. "Pure" diastolic dysfunction is associated with long-axis systolic dysfunction. Implications for the diagnosis and classification of heart failure. Eur J Heart Fail 2005;7:820-28.
111. The SOLVD investigators. Effects of enalapril on survival in patients with reduced left ventricular ejection fractions and congestive heart failure. N Eng J Med 1991;325:293-302.