Pathogenesis, etiology and treatment of bronchiectasis

Annals of Thoracic Medicine

Volumn 1, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 41-51

  Al Shirawi, Nehad ^a   Al Jahdali, Hamdan ^a,b   Al Shimemeri, Abdullah ^b  

^a KING FAHAD NATIONAL GUARD HOSPITAL   (Saudi Arabia)

^b KING SAUD BIN ABDULAZIZ UNIVERSITY FOR HEALTH SCIENCES   (Saudi Arabia)

Author keywords

Bronchiectasis; Chronic lung disease

Indexed keywords

EID: 33747644917     PISSN: 18171737     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.4103/1817-1737.25870     Document Type: Review

References (163)

1. Stockley RA. Bronchiectasis-new therapeutic approaches based on pathogenesis. Clin Chest Med 1987;8:481-94.
2. Koh YY, Lee MH, Sun YH, Sung KW, Chae JH. Effect of roxithromycin on airway responsiveness in children with bronchiectasis: A double blind, placebo-controlled study, Eur Respir J 1997;10:994-9.
3. Evans DJ, Greenstone M. Long-tem antibiotics in the management of non-CF bronchiectasis-do they improve outcome? Respir Med 2003;97:851-8.
4. Barker AF. Bronchiectasis. N Engl J Med 2002;346:1383-93.
5. Annest LS, Kratz JM, Crawford FA Jr. Current results of treatment of bronchiectasis. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1982;83:546-50.
6. Evans WA Jr, Galinsky LJ. The diagnosis of bronchiectasis in young adults. Prebronchographic roentgen manifestations observed among military personnel AJR 1944;51:537-47.
7. Ochsner A. Bronchiectasis. Disappearing pulmonary lesion. NY State J Med 1975;75:1683-9.
8. Kinney WM. Bronchiectasis. A neglected disease. Chest 1947;13:33-47.
9. Singleton R, Morris A, Redding G, Poll J, Holck P, Martinez P, et al. Bronchiectasis in Alaska Native children: Causes and clinical courses. Pediatr Pulmonol 2000;29:182-7.
10. Al-Mobeireek AF, Al-Sarhani A, Al-Amri S, Bamgboye E, Ahmed SS. Chronic cough at a non-teaching hospital: Are extra pulmonary causes overlooked? Respirology 2002;7:141-6.
11. Reid LM. Reduction in bronchial subdivision in bronchiectasis. Thorax 1950;5:233-47.
12. Cohen M, Sahn SA. Bronchiectasis in systemic disease. Chest 1999;116:1063-74.
13. Kwon KY, Myers JL, Swensen SJ, Colby TV. Middle lobe syndrome: A clinico-pathological study of 21 patients. Hum Pathol 1995;26:302-7.
14. Johnston ID, Strachan DP, Anderson HR. Effects of pneumonia and whooping cough in childhood on adult lung function. N Engl J Med 1998;338:581-7.
15. Kauffman BY, Tomee JF, Vander Werf TS, de Monchy JG, Koeter GK. Review of fungus-induced asthmatic reactions. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995;151:2109-16.
16. Chauhan B, Knutsen AP, Hutcheson PS, Slavin RG, Bellone CJ. T cell subsets, epitope mapping and HLA-restriction in patients with allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis. J Clin Invest 1996;97:2324-31.
17. Holmes AH, Trotman-Dickenson B, Edwards A, Peto T, Luzzi GA. Bronchiectasis in HIV disease. QJ Med 1992;85:875-82.
18. McGuinness G, Naidich DP, Garays, Leitman BS, McCauley DI. AIDS associated bronchiectasis: CT features. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1993;17:260-6.
19. Shiekh S, Madirajuk, Steiner P, Rao M. Bronchiectasis in pediatric AIDS. Chest 1997;112:1202-7.
20. Rosen FS, Cooper MD, Wedgwood RJ. The primary immunodeficiencies. N Engl J Med 1995;333:431-40.
21. Cunningham-Rundles C, Bodian C. Common variable immuno deficiency: Clinical and immunological features of 248 patients. Clin Immunol 1999;92:34-48.
22. De Gracia J, Rodrigo MJ, Morell F, Vendrell M, Miravitlles M, Cruz MJ, et al. IgG subclass deficiencies associated with bronchiectasis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;153:650-5.
23. Hill SL, Mitchell JL, Burnett D, Stockely RA. IgG Subclasses in the serum and sputum from patients with bronchiectasis. Thorax 1998;53:463-8.
24. Davis PB, Drumm M, Konstan MW. Cystic fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;154:1229-56.
25. Ninis VN, Kylync MO, Kandemir M, Daoly E, Tolun A. High frequency of T9 and CFTR mutations in children with idiopathic bronchiectasis. J Med Genet 2003;40:530-9.
26. Castellan C, Quinzii C, Altieri S, Mostella G, Assael BM. A pilot survey of cystic fibrosis clinical manifestations in CFTR mutation heterozygotes. Genet Test 2001;5:249-54.
27. Longstreth G, Weitzman SA, Browning RJ, Lieberman J. Bronchiectasis and homozygous alpha -1- anti trypsin deficiency. Chest 1975;67:233-5.
28. Scott JH, Anderson CL, Shankar PS, Stavrides A. Alpha -1- antitrypsin deficiency with diffuse bronchiectasis and cirrhosis of the liver. Chest 1977;71:535-8.
29. Rodriquez-Cintron W, Guntupalli K, Fraire AE. Bronchiectasis and homozygous (PiZZ) a1-antitrypsin deficiency in a young man. Thorax 1995;50:424-5.
30. Shin MS, Ho KJ. Bronchiectasis in patients with alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency: A rare occurrence? Chest 1993;104:1384-6.
31. Cuvelier A, Muir JF, Hellot MF, Benhamou D, Martin JP, Benichou J, et al. Distribution of alpha-1-antitrypsin alleles in patients with bronchiectasis. Chest 2000;117:415-9.
32. Le Mauviel L. Primary ciliary dyskinesia. West J Med 1991;155:280-3.
33. Bush A, Cole P, Hariri M, Mackay I, Phillips G, O'Callaghan C, et al. Primary ciliary dyskinesia: diagnosis and standards of care. Eur Respir J 1998;12:982-8.
34. Walker WC. Pulmonary infections and rheumatoid arthritis. QJ Med 1967;142:239-50.
35. Solanki T, Neville E. Bronchiectasis and rheumatoid disease: Is there an association? Br J Rheum 1992;31:691-3.
36. Bamji A, Cooke N. Rheumatoid arthritis and chronic bronchial suppuration. Scand J Rheumatol 1985;14:15-21.
37. McMahon MJ, Swinson DR, Shettar S, Wolstenholme R, Chattopadhyay C, Smith P, et al. Bronchiectasis and rheumatoid arthritis: A clinical study. Ann Rheum Dis 1993;52:776-9.
38. McMahon MJ, Swinson DR. Younger onset of rheumatoid arthritis in patients with bronchiectasis (abstract). Br J Rheumatol 1993;32:125.
39. Vandenbroucke JP, Kaaks R, Valkenburg HA, Boersma JW, Cats A, Festen JJ, et al. Frequency of infections among rheumatoid arthritis patients, before and after disease onset. Arthritis Rheum 1987;30:810-3.
40. Van Albada-Kuipers GA, Linthorst J, Peeters EA, Breedveld FC, Dijkmans BA, Hermans J, et al. Frequency of infection among patients with rheumatoid arthritis versus patients with osteoarthritis or soft tissue rheumatism. Arthritis Rheum 1988;31:667-71.
41. Swinson DR, Symmons D, Suresh U, Jones M, Booth J. Decreased survival in patients with co-existent rheumatoid arthritis and bronchiectasis. Br J Rheumatol 1997;36:689-91.
42. Camus P, Piard F, Ashcroft T, Gal AA, Colby TV. The lung in inflammatory bowel disease. Medicine 1993;72:151-83.
43. Higenbottam T, Cochrane GM, Clark TJ, Turner D, Millis R, Seymour W. Bronchial disease in ulcerative colitis. Thorax 1980:35:581-5.
44. Butland RJ, Cole P, Citron KM, Turner-Warwick M. Chronic bronchial suppuration and inflammatory bowel disease. QJ Med 1981;50:63-75.
45. Leon EE, Clark T, Craig TJ. Bronchiectasis in a 33 year old man with ulcerative colitis. Ann Aller Asthma Immunol 1999;83:505-9.
46. Eaton TE, Lambie N, Wells AU. Bronchiectasis following colectomy for Crohn's disease. Thorax 1998;53:529-31.
47. Kinnear W, Higenbottam T. Pulmonary manifestations of inflammatory bowel disease. Intern Med spec 1983;4:104-11.
48. Pasteur MC, Helliwell MC, Houghton SJ, Webb SC, Foweraker JE, Coulden RA, et al. An investigation into causative factors in patients with bronchiectasis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000;162:1277-84.
49. Stockley RA, Hill SL, Morrison HM, Starkie CM. Elastolytic activity of sputum and its relationship to purulence and to lung function in-patient with bronchiectasis. Thorax 1984;39:408-13.
50. Stockley RA. Proteolytic enzymes, their inhibitors and lung disease. Clin Sci 1983;64:119-26.
51. Snider GL, Lacey EC, Christensen TG, Stone PJ, Calore JD, Catanese A, et al. Emphysema and bronchial secretory cell metaplasia induced in hamsters by human neutrophil products. Am Rev Respir Dsi 1984;129:155-60.
52. Sykes DA, Wilson R, Greenstone M, Currie DC, Steinfort C, Cole PJ. Deleterious effects of purulent sputum sol on human ciliary function in vitro, at least two factors identified. Thorax 1987;42:256-61.
53. Smallman LA, Hill SL, Stockley RA. Reduction of ciliary beat frequency in vitro by sputum from patient with bronchiectasis: A serine proteinase effect. Thorax 1984;39:663-7.
54. Chan SC, Shum DK, Ip MS. Sputum Sol Neutrophil elastase activity in bronchiectasis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003;168:192-200.
55. Tsang KW, Chan KN, Ho PL, Zheng L, Ooi GC, Ho JC, et al. Sputum elastase in steady state bronchiectasis. Chest 2000;117:420-6.
56. Niederman MS, Merril WW, Polomski LM, Reynolds HY, Gee JB. Influence of sputum IgA and elastase on tracheal cell bacterial adherence. Am Rev Respir Dis 1986;133:255-60.
57. Fick RB Jr, Naegel GP, Squier SU, Wood RE, Gee JB, Reynolds HY. Proteins of the cystic fibrosis respiratory tract. Fragmented immunoglobin-G opsonic antibody causing defective opsonophagocytosis. J Clin Invest 1984;74:236-48.
58. Tsang KW, Leung R, Fung PC, Chan SL, Tipoe GL, Ooi GC, et al. Exhaled and sputum nitric oxide in bronchiectasis: Correlation with clinical parameters. Chest 2002;121:88-94.
59. Beckman JS, Beckman TN, Chen J, Marshall PA, Freeman BA. Apparent hydroxyl radical production by peroxynitrite: implications for endothelial injury from nitric oxide and superoxide. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1990;87:1620-4.
60. Tsang KW, Ho PI, Chan KN, Ip MS, Lam WK, Ho CS, et al. A pilot study of low-dose erythromycin in bronchiectasis, Eur Respir J 1999;13:361-4.
61. Nakamura H, Fujishima S, Inoue T, Ohkubo Y, Soejima K, Waki Y, et al. Clinical and immunoregulatory effects of rovithromycin therapy of chronic respiratory tract infection. Eur Respir J 1999;13:1371-9.
62. Schultz MJ, Speelman P, Van der Poll T. Erythromycin inhibits pseudomonas aeruginosa-induced tumour necrosis factor-alpha production in human whole blood. J Antimicrob Chemother 2001;48:275-8.
63. Schleimer RP, Benenari SV, Friedman B, Bochner BS. Do cytokines play a role in leukocyte recruitment and activation in the lung? Am Rev Respir Dis 1991:143:1169-74.
64. Baggiolini M, Walz A, Kunkel SL. Neutrophil-activating peptide I/Interleukin 8, a novel cytokine that activates neutrophils. J Clin Invest 1989;84:1045-9.
65. Pang J, Chan HS, Sung JY. Prevalence of asthma, atopy and bronchial hyperactivity in bronchiectasis: A controlled study. Thorax 1989;44:948-51.
66. Ip M, Lam WK, So SY, Liong E, Chan CY, Tse KM. Analysis of factors associated with bronchial hyper-reactivity to methacholine in bronchiectasis. Lung 1991:169:43-51.
67. Khalid M, Saleemi S, Zeitouni M, Al Dammas S, Khaliq MR. Effect of obstructive airway disease in patients with non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis. Ann Saudi Med 2004;24:284-7.
68. Nicotra MB, Rivera M, Dale AM, Shepherd R, Carter R. Clinical pathophysiologic and microbiologic characterization of bronchiectasis in an aging cohort. Chest 1995;108:955-61.
69. McGuinness G, Naidich DP, Leitman BS, McCauley DI. Bronchiectasis: CT evaluation. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1993;160:253-9.
70. Eun YK, Miller RR, Müller NL. Bronchiectasis: Comparison of preoperative thin-section CT and pathologic findings in resected specimens. Radiology 1995;195:649-54.
71. Naidich DP, McCauley DI, Khouri NF, Stitik FP, Siegelman SS. Computed tomography in the recognition of bronchiectasis. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1982;6:437-44.
72. Grenier P, Maurice F, Musset D, Menu Y, Nahum H. Bronchiectasis: Assessment by thin-section CT. Radiology 1986;161:95-9.
73. Van der Bruggen-Bogaarts BA, Van der Bruggen HM, Van Waes PF, Lammers JW. Assessment of bronchiectasis: comparison of HRCT and spiral volumetric CT. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1996;20:15-9.
74. Van der Bruggen-Bogaarts BA, Van der Bruggen HM, Van Waes PF, Lammers JW. Screening for bronchiectasis: A comparative study between chest radiography and high-resolution CT. Chest 1996;109:608-11.
75. Paslawski M, Zlomaniec J. Small bronchiectases and bronchiolectases in high-resolution computer tomography (HRCT). Ann Univ Mariae Curie Sklodowska [Med] 2003;58:402-6.
76. Ooi GC, Khong PL, Chan-Yeung M, Ho JC, Chan PK, Lee JC, et al. High-Resolution CT Quantification of Bronchiectasis: Clinical and Functional Correlation. Radiology 2002;225:663-72.
77. Lynch DA, Newell J, Hale V, Dyer D, Corkery K, Fox NL, et al. Correlation of CT findings with clinical evaluations in 261 patients with symptomatic bronchiectasis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1999;173:53-8.
78. Wong-You-Cheong JJ, Leahy BC, Taylor PM, Church SE. Airways Obstruction and bronchiectasis: Correlation with duration of symptoms and extent of bronchiectasis on computed tomography. Clin Radiol 1992;45:256-9.
79. Roberts HR, Wells AU, Milne DG, Rubens MB, Kolbe J, Cole PJ, et al. Airflow obstruction in bronchiectasis: Correlation between computer tomography features and pulmonary function tests. Thorax 2000;55:198-204.
80. Yankaskas JR, Marshall B, Sufian B, Simon RH, Rodman D. Cystic Fibrosis Adult Care: Consensus Conference Report. Chest 2004;125:S1-39.
81. Gan KH, Geus WP, Bakker W, Lamers CB, Heijerman HG. Genetic and Clinical features of patients with Cystic fibrosis diagnosed after the age of 16 years. Thorax 1995;50:1301-4.
82. Baumer JH. Evidence based guidelines for the performance of the sweat test for the investigation of cystic fibrosis in the UK. Arch Dis Child 2003;88:1126-7.
83. Stewart B, Zabner J, Shuber AP, Welsh MJ, McCray PB Jr. Normal sweat chloride values do not exclude the diagnosis of cystic fibrosis. AmJ Respir Crit Care Med 1995;151:899-903.
84. WangL, Freedman SD. Laboratory tests for the diagnosis of cystic fibrosis. Am J Clin Pathol 2002;117:S109-115.
85. Bush A, O'Callaghan C. Primary ciliary dyskinesia. Arch Dis Child 2002;87:363-5.
86. Karadag B, James AJ, Gultekin E, Wilson NM, Bush A. Nasal and lower airway level of nitric oxide in children with primary ciliary dyskinesia. Eur Respir J 1999;13:1402-5.
87. Balfour-Lynn IM, Laverty A, Dinwiddie R. Reduced upper airway nitric oxide in cystic fibrosis. Arch Dis child 1996;75:319-22.
88. Nakano H, Ide H, Imada M, Osanai S, Takahashi T, Kikuchi K, et al. Reduced nasal nitric oxide in diffuse panbronchiolitis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000;162:2218-20.
89. Friedman NR, Pachigolla R, Deskin RW, Hawkins HK. Optimal technique to diagnose primary ciliary dyskinesia. Laryngoscope 2000;110:1548-51.
90. Mac Cormick J. Robb I, Kovesi T, Carpenter B. Optimal biopsy techniques in the diagnosis of primary ciliary dyskinesia. J Otolaryngol 2002;31:13-7.
91. Chang AB, Boyce NC, Masters IB, Torzillo PJ, Masel JP. Bronchoscopic findings in children with non-cystic fibrosis chronic suppurative lung disease. Thorax 2002;57:935-8.
92. Mansour Y, Beck R, Danino J, Bentor L. Resolution of severe bronchiectasis after removal of long-standing retained foreign body. Pediatr Pulmonol 1998;25:130-2.
93. Bertolani MF, Marotti F, Bergamini BM, Pellegrino M, Balli R, Calandra Buonaura PL. Extraction of a rubber bullet from a bronchus after 1 year: Complete resolution of chronic pulmonary damage. Chest 1999;115:1210-3.
94. Ernst KD, Mohmud F. Reversible cystic dilatation of distal airways due to foreign body. South Med J 1994;87:404-6.
95. Laurenzi G, Potter RT, Kass EH. Bacteriologic flora of the lower respiratory tract. N Engl J Med 1961;265:1273-8.
96. Roberts DE, Cole PJ. Use of selective media in bacteriological investigation of patients with chronic suppurative respiratory infection. Lancet 1980;1:796-7.
97. Angrill J, Agusti C, DE Celis R, Filella X, Rano A, Elena M, et al. Bronchial inflammation and colonization in patients with clinically stable bronchiectasis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001 Nov;164:1628-32.
98. Hoiby N. Antibodies against Pseudomonas aeruginosa in patients with bronchiectasis: Helpful or harmful? Thorax 2001;56:667-8.
99. Caballero E, Drobnic ME, Perez MT, Manresa JM, Ferrer A, Orriols R. Anti-pseudomonas aeruginosa antibody detection in patients with bronchiectasis without cystic fibrosis. Thorax 2001;56:669-74.
100. HO PL, Chan KN, Ip MS, Lam WK, Ho CS, Yuen KY, et al. The effect of pseudomonas aeruginosa infection on clinical parameters in steady-state bronchiectasis. Chest 1998;114:1594-8.
101. Wilson CB, Jones PW, O'Leary CJ, Hansell DM. Effects of sputum bacteriology on the quality of life of patients with bronchiectasis. Chest 1998;114:A24.
102. Jarvis WR, Olson D, Tablan O, Martone WJ. The epidemiology of nosocomial Pseudomonas cepacia infections:endemic infections. Eur J Epidemiol 1987;3:233-6.
103. Ledson MJ, Gallagher MJ, Walshaw MJ. Chronic Burkholderia cepacia bronchiectasis in a non-cystic fibrosis individual. Thorax 1998;53:430-2.
104. Roles FC, Todd GS. Bronchiectasis. Diagnosis and prognosis in relation to treatment. Bronchiectasis Med J 1993;2:639-43.
105. Perry KM, King DS. Bronchiectasis. A study of prognosis based on a follow-up of 400 pt. Am Rev Tuberc 1940;41:531-48.
106. Sanderson JM, Kennedy MC, Johnson MF, Manley DC. Bronchiectasis. Results of surgical and conservative management. A review of 394 cases. Thorax 1974;29:407-16.
107. Crutcher RR, Pellegrino ED. Bilateral bronchiectasis. Surgical management with particular attention to the problem of the residual superior segment of the lower lobes. Ann Surg 1960;151:715-28.
108. Oscher A, DeBakey M, Decamp PT. Bronchiectasis. Its curative treatment by pulmonary resection. An analysis of ninety-six cases. Surgery 1949;25:518-32.
109. Ashour M, Al-Kattan KM, Jain SK, Al-Majed S, Al-Kassimi F, Mobaireek A, et al. Surgery for unilateral bronchiectasis: Results and prognostic factors. Tuber Lung Dis 1996;77:168-72.
110. Angrill J, Agusti C, Torres A. Bronchiectasis. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2001;14:193-7.
111. Etienne T, Spiliopoulos A, Megevand R. Bronchiectasis: indication and timing for surgery. Ann Chir 1993;47:729-35.
112. Mazieres J, Murris M, Didier A, Giron J, Dahan M, Berjaud J, et al. Limited operation for severe multisegmental bilateral bronchiectasis. Ann Thorac Surg 2003;75:382-7.
113. Ashaour M, Al-Kattan K, Rafay MA, Saja KF, Hajjar W, Al-Fraye AR. Current surgical therapy for bronchiectasis. World J Surg 1999;23:1096-104.
114. Al-Kattan KM, Essa MA, Hajjar WM, Ashour MH, Saleh WN, Rafay MA. Surgical results for bronchiectasis based on hemodynamic (functional and morphologic) classification. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2005;130:1385-90.
115. Corless JA, Warburton CJ. Surgery versus non-surgical treatment for bronchiectasis. Cochrane Airway Group; The Cochrane Database of systemic Reviews 2000;AN:CD002180.
116. Bateman J, Newman S, Daunt K, Sheahan N, Pavia D, Clarke S. Is cough as effective as Chest physiotherapy in the removal of excessive tracheobronchial secretions? Thorax 1981;35:683-7.
117. Sutton P, Parker R, Webber B, Newman S, Garland N, Lopez-Vidriero M, et al. Assessment of the forced expiration technique, postural drainage and directed coughing in chest physiotherapy. Eur J Respir Dis 1983;64:62-8.
118. Jones A, Rowe BH. Bronchopulmonary hygiene physical therapy in bronchiectasis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: A systematic review. Heart Lung 2000;29:125-35.
119. Olivieri D, Craccia A, Marangio E, Mariscos, Todisco T, Del Vita M. Role of Bromhexine in Exacerbations of Bronchiectasis. Respiration 1991;58:117-21.
120. O'Donnel AE, Barker AF, Ilowite JS, Fick RB. Treatment of idiopathic bronchiectasis with aerosolized recombinant human D Nase I. Chest 1998;113:1329-34.
121. Cherniak N, Bosti KL, Saxton GA, Lepper MH, Dowling HF. Pulmonary function tests in fifty patients with bronchiectasis. J Lab clinic Med 1997;52:693-707.
122. Murphy MB, Deen DJ, Fitzgerald MX. Atopy, immunological changes and respiratory function in bronchiectasis. Thorax 1984;31:179-84.
123. Franco F, Sheikh A, Greenstone M. Short-acting beta-2 agonist for bronchiectasis. Cochrane Airway Group; The Cochrane Database of systematic reviews 2002;AN:CD003572.
124. Tsang KW, Ho PL, Lam WK, IP MS, Chan KN, Ho CS, et al. Inhaled fluticasone reduces sputum inflammatory indices in severe bronchiectasis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;158:723-7.
125. Elborn JS, Johnston B, Allen F, Clarke J, McGarry J, Varghese G. Inhaled steroids in patients with bronchiectasis. Respir Med 1992;86:121-4.
126. Sheikh A, Nolan D, Greenstone M. Long-acting beta 2-agonists for bronchiectasis. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2001, Issue 4. Art No:CD 002155. DOI:10.1002/14651858. CD 002155.
127. Corless JA, Warburton CJ. Leukotriene receptor antagonists for non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis. The Cochrane Database Systematic Reviews 2000, Issue 2. Art No:CD002174. DOI:10.1002/14651858. CD002174.
128. Tsang KW, Tan KC, Ho PL, Ooi GC, Ho JC, Mak J, et al. Inhaled fluticasone in bronchiectasis:a 12-month study. Thorax 2005;60:239-43.
129. Tsang KW, Lam WK, Sun J, Ooi GC. Regression of bilateral bronchiectasis with inhaled steroid therapy. Respirology 2002;7:77-81.
130. Lasserson TJ, Holt K, Milan SJ, Greenstone M. Oral steroids for bronchiectasis (stable and acute exacerbation). The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 1999, Issue 4. Art No:CD002162. DOI:10.1002/14651858. CD002162.
131. Greenberger PA. Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis. J Aller Clin Immunol 2002;110:685-92.
132. Chan TH, Ho SS, Lai CK, Cheung SW, Chan RC, Cheng AF, et al. Comparison of oral ciprofloxacin and amoxycillin in treating infective exacerbations of bronchiectasis in Hong Kong. Chemotherapy 1996;42:150-6.
133. Pines A, Raafat H, Plucinski K, Greenfield JS, Linsell WD. Cephaloridine compared with penicillin and streptomycin and chronic purulent bronchitis. Controlled trials of increasing dose of cephaloridine. Br J Chest Dis 1967;61:101-10.
134. Lam WK, Chau PY, So SY, Lueng YK, Chan JC, Sham MK. A double-blind randomized study comparing ofloxacin and amoxycillin in treating infective episodes of bronchiectasis. Infection 1986;14:S290-2.
135. Stockley RA, Hill SL, Morrison HM. Effect of antibiotic treatment on sputum elastase in bronchiectatic outpatients in stable clinical state. Thorax 1984;39:414-9.
136. Hill SL, Burnett D, Hewetson KA, Stockley RA. The response of patients with purulent with bronchiectasis to antibiotics over four months. Quart J Med 1988;250:166-73.
137. Hill SL, Morrison HM, Burnett D, Stockley RA. Short-term responses of patients with bronchiectasis to treatment with amoxycillin given in standards and high dose orally or by inhalation. Thorax 1986;41:559-65.
138. Ip M, Shum D, Lauder I, Lam WK, So Y. Effect of antibiotics on sputum inflammatory contents in acute exacerbations of bronchiectasis. Resp Med 1993;87:449-54.
139. Kelly CA, Stenton C, Gould K, Hendrick DJ. The effect of high-dose amoxycillin on bronchial responsiveness and symptoms in patient with bronchiectasis. Am Rev Respir Dis 1987;135:A269.
140. Miyatake H, Taki F, Taniguchi H, Suzuki R, Takagi K, Satake T. Erythromycin reduces the severity of bronchial hyper-responsiveness in asthma. Chest 1991;99:670-3.
141. Shimizu T, Kato M, Mochizuki H, Tokuyama K, Morikawa A, Kuroume T. Roxithromycin reduces the degree of bronchial hyper-responsiveness in children with asthma. Chest 1994;106:458-61.
142. Kaplan MA, Goldin M. The use of triacetyloleandomycin in chronic infectious asthma. In: Welch H, Marti-Ibanez F, editors. Antibiotics annual 1958-59. Interscience Publishers Inc: New York; 1959. p. 273-6.
143. Kadota J, Mukae H, Ishii H, Nagata T, Kaida H, Tomono K, et al. Long term efficacy and safety of clarithromycin treatment in patient with diffuse panbronchiatitis. Respir Med 2003;97:844-50.
144. Kudoh S. Erythromycin treatment in diffuse panbronchiolitis. Curr Opin Pulm Med 1998;4:116-21.
145. Tredaniel J, Zalcman G, Gerber F, D'Agay MF, Capron F, Frija J, et al. Diffuse panbronchiolitis: efficacy of low-dose erythromycin. Resp Med 1993;87:229-30.
146. Kudoh S, Azuma A, Yamamoto M, Izumi T, Ando M. Improvement of survival in patient with diffuse panbronchiolitis treated with low-dose erythromycin. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;157:1829-32.
147. Wolter J, Seeney S, Bell S, Bowler S, Masel P, McCormack J. Effect of long-term treatment with azithromycin on disease parameters in cystic fibrosis: A randomized trial. Thorax 2002;57:212-6.
148. Gaylor AS, Reilly JC. Therapy with macrolides in patient with cystic fibrosis. Pharmacotherapy 2002;22:227-39.
149. Baumann U, Fischer JJ, Gudawius P, Linger M, Herrman S, Tummler B, et al. Buccal adherence of pseudomonas aeruginosa in patient with cystic fibrosis under long-term therapy with azithromycin. Infection 2001;29:7-11.
150. Ordonez CL, Stulbarg M, Grundland H, Liu JT, Boushey HA. Effect of clarithromycin on airway obstruction and inflammatory markers in induced sputum in cystic fibrosis:a pilot study. Pediatr Pulmonol 2001;32:29-37.
151. Saiman L, Marshall BC, Mayer-Hamblett N, Burns JL, Quittner AL, Cibene DA, et al. Macrolide study group Azithromycin in patient with cystic fibrosis chronically infected with Pseudomonas aeruginosa: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2003;290:1749-56.
152. Equi A, Balfour-Lynn IM, Bush A, Rosenthal M. Long-term azithromycin in children with cystic fibrosis: A randomized, placebo-controlled crossover trial. Lancet 2002;360:978-84.
153. Schoni MH. Macrolide antibiotics therapy in patient with cystic fibrosis. Swiss Med Wkly 2003;133:297-301.
154. Southern KW, Barker PM, Solis A. Macrolide antibiotic for cystic fibrosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003;3:CD002203.
155. Tagaya E, Tamaoki J, Kondo M, Nagai A. Effects of a short course of clarithromycin therapy on sputum production in patients with chronic airway hyper-secretion. Chest 2002;122:213-8.
156. Drobnic ME, Sune P, Montoro JB, Ferrer A, Orriols R. Inhaled tobramycin in non-cystic fibrosis patients with bronchiectasis and chronic bronchial infection with Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Ann Pharmacother 2005;39:39-44.
157. Couch LA. Treatment with tobramycin solution for inhalation in bronchiectasis patients with Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Chest 2001;120:114S-7S.
158. Barker AF, Couch L, Fiel SB, Gotfried MH, Ilowite J, Meyer KC, et al. Tobramycin solution for inhalation reduces sputum Pseudomonas aeruginosa density in bronchiectasis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000;162:481-5.
159. Orriols R, Roig J, Ferrer J, Sampol G, Rosell A, Ferrer A, et al. Inhaled antibiotic therapy in non-cystic fibrosis patients with bronchiectasis and chronic bronchial infection by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Respir Med 1999;93:476-80.
160. CDC Prevention of pneumococcal disease. Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR 1997;46:1-24.
161. Whitney CG, Farley MM, Hadler J, Harrison LH, Bennett NM, Lynfield R, et al. Active Bacteria Surveillance of the Emerging Infections Program Network. Decline in invasive pneumococcal disease after the introduction of protein-polysaccharide conjugate vaccine. N Engl J Med 2003;348:1737-46.
162. Jackson LA, Neuzil KM, Yu O, Benson P, Barlow WE, Adams AL, et al. Effectiveness of pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in older adults. N Engl J Med 2003;348:1747-55.
163. Influenza vaccines. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 2002;77:230-9.