A failed manipulation: the british, the oudh bequest and the shï ̈ulamä of najaf and karbalä

British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies

Volumn 27, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 69-89

  Litvak, Meir ^a  

^a TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY   (Israel)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 33745846411     PISSN: 13530194     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13530190050010994     Document Type: Article

References (78)

1. Oudh is the British name of the Indian kingdom of Awadh, and it will be used here since the British documents constitute the major source for this study.
2. Mahmüd Mahmüd, Ta'rïkh-i raväbiẗ-i siyäsï-yi irän va inglïs dar qarn-i nuzdahum mïlädï, 7 vols, 6 (Tehran 1949-1950), pp. 1343-1344; Ismäil Räin, Huqüq-i bïgirän-i inglïs dar irän (Tehran; 1347/1968). p. 104; Nikki Keddie, 'British Policy and the Iranian Opposition, 1901-1907', Journal of Modem History, 39 (1967), pp. 273-274; Dennis MacEoin, 'Changes in Charismatic Authority in Qajar Shi'ism', in C. E. Bosworth (ed.) Qajar Iran: Political. Social and Cultural Change, 1800-1925, (Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press, 1983), p. 149; Mangol Bayat, Iran 's First Revolution: Shïism and the Constitutional Revolution of1905-1909 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 28.
3. The first and second loans of 10 million rupees each were extracted by the EIC in 1816 to finance the cost of the war. See J. R. I. Cole, ' "Indian Money" and the Shïï Shrine Cities of Iraq 1786-1850', Middle Eastern Studies, 22 (1986), p. 466.
4. P/l 24/25 Government of India Foreign Department [hereafter GIFD] Political Consultations [hereafter PC] nos 35-36, 16 September 1825 - *Deed of Arrangement between HM the King of Oudh and the Rt. Hon. Company, 17 August 1825. All correspondence belonging to the India government are from the India Office Records unless mentioned otherwise; John G. Lorimer, Gazetteer of the Persian Cw//(Calcutta 1908-1915, reproduced Shannon: Irish University Press, 1970) p. 1, IB:1410.
5. Baghdad Kemball to Elliot no. 29,6 December, 1849-Enclosure in FO 195/334 Baghdad no. 33 Kemball to Canning, 12 December, 1849.
6. P/199/4 GIFD-PC no. 10, 10 May, 1850-Simla no. 946 Elliot to Kemball, 8 April, 1850.
7. FO 195/367 Baghdad no. 2 Rawlinson to Palmerston, 2 February 1852-Enclosed in FO 195/367 no. 5 Rawlinson to Canning, 11 February, 1852
8. P/199/67 GIFD-PC, 21 May, 1852 no. 3-Alison to Rawlinson no. 1143.
9. GIFD-PC no. 5 dated 22 December, 1852-Fort William no. 260 Alien to Rawlinson, 8 October, 1852.
10. For an analysis of the financial system of the 'Atabât, see Meir Litvak, 'The Finances of the 'Ulama' Community of Najaf and Karbala' in the Nineteenth Century', Well des Islams 40 (2000); Yitzhak Nakash, The Shfîs of Iraq (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), pp. 205ff.
11. For the internal workings of the bequest, see Meir Litvak, 'Money, Politics and Religion: The Oudh Bequest in Najaf and Karbala' 1850-1900', in International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies.
12. Lorimer, Gazetteer .... pp. 1, IB: 1475-1476
13. L/P&S/7/10 Simla Viceroy's Council to Salisbury, 4 September 1876; P/3742 GIFD-Intemal Proceeding no. 43, September 1890 Simla no. 1732-1 Bames to Tweedie, 24 May, 1890; P/4614 GIFD-Internal Proceedings no. 297, June 1894-Williams to Mockler, 11 April, 1894.
14. P/6652 GIFD-Intemal Proceeding no. 82-Baghdad no. 323 Newmarch to Dane 19 June, 1903
15. David McLean, Britain and Her Buffer State: The Collapse of the Persian Empire (London: Royal Historical Society, 1979), p. 57; Keddie, 'British Policy ...', pp. 270ff.
16. P/6652 GIFD-Internal Enclosure no. 3 to Proceedings no. 83-Tehran Hardinge to Newmarch, 18 June 1903.
17. Ibid.
18. National Archives of India [NAI] FD Secret F, November 1903 Proceedings nos 98-137-Telegram no. 82 Hardinge to Simla, 10 June 1903.
19. L/PS/3/399 Register 2643 Lansdowne to Hardinge Telegraph no. 60, 11 June 1903; McLean, Britain ..., p. 57. One example of such an expenditure was the British guarantee for a £2000 loan by the Imperial Bank of Persia to the shrine of Mashhad, ibid., p. 58.
20. Ibid., Register no. 2654 Hardinge to Lansdowne, telegraph no. 81, 14 June 1903.
21. P/6652 GIFD-Internal Enclosure no. 3 to Proceedings no. 83-Tehran Hardinge to Newmarch, 18 June 1903; Arthur Hardinge, A Diplomatist in the East (London: J. Cape, 1928), p. 323; Lorimer, Gazetteer ..., p. 1, IB: 1615
22. Hardinge, A Diplomatist..., p. 323.
23. FO 248A762 Tehran Erskine to Newmarch, 27 October 1902; ibid., Hardinge to Newmarch, 6 December 1902; Lorimer, Gazetteer .... p. 1, IB: 1615; P/6652 GIFD-Internal Proceedings no. 72-Tehran no. 11 Hardinge to the Secretary to the Government of India in the Foreign Department, 2 April 1903; Ibid., Proceeding no. 78-Baghdad no. 287 Newmarch to Dane, 8 June 1903.
24. NAIFD External A Proceedings 30-40, December 1905-Gulahek Hardinge to Newmarch, 27 July 1905; ibid., Baghdad no. 630 Newmarch to Hardinge, 17 August 1905; Baghdad Newmarch to Preece, 28 June 1905-sub-enclosure 2 to Proceedings no. 30.
25. P/6652 Proceeding no. 82 Baghdad no. 323 Newmarch to Dane, 19 June 1903.
26. Ibid., Proceeding no. 78 Baghdad no. 287 Newmarch to Dane, 8 June 1903.
27. P/6652 Proceeding no. 82 Baghdad no. 323 Newmarch to Dane, 19 June 1903.
28. NAI FD External A December 1905 Proceedings nos 30-40-Baghdad no. 771 Newmarch to Secretary to GIFD, 23 September 1905.
29. Hardinge, A Diplomatist ..., p. 323.
30. On the economic importance of the Bequest see below.
31. Ibid., Proceedings no. 34: Extract from the diary of the Political Resident in Turkish Arabia for the week ending 25 September 1905.
32. FO/195/2I88 Baghdad no. 1031 Newmarch to Dane, 30 December 1905.SeealsohisexpIanationinFO416/14 no. 256,9 September 1903 of why he did not go to see Sharabiyänï. He said that the mujtahids 'have an altogether exaggerated idea of their own sanctity, dignity, and importance. They are often quite inaccessible to Christians'. Such attitudes by the mujtahids and the British hardly conforms with the perception of the former being manipulated by the British.
33. For one such request on behalf of Sayyid Mustafa Käshänï, see FO 248/950 Baghdad no. 515 Ramsay to Marling, 16 June 1908; ibid., Baghdad no. 785 Ramsay to Marling, 28 August 1908. The Consul verified that Käshänï enjoyed wide recognition in Najaf as a mujtahid, but Käshänïhimself declined the offer for a share.
34. FO 248/951 Baghdad no. 719 Ramsay to Secretary to GIFD, 7 August 1908
35. Firuz Kazemzadeh, Russia and Britain in Persia, 1864-1914 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1968), p.
36. For the 'ulamä"s political activity, sec Abdul-Hadi Hairi, Shïsm and Constitutionalism in Iran (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1977), pp. 90-91; Nakash, The Shïs ..., pp. 57-58. For Khoräsänï's appeals, see Enclosures in FO 195/2309 Baghdad no. 425 Ramsay to Barclay, 4 May 1909; and FO 195/2309 Baghdad no. 529 Ramsay to Barclay, 25 May 1909.
37. NAI FD-Secret-E June 1908-Extracts from the Political Diary for the Baghdad Residency for the week ending 7 January 1908; FO 195/2274 Baghdad no. 484-50 Political Diary for Baghdad Residency for week ending 2 June 1908; see also Hasan Quchänï Najafï Siyähat-i Sharq ya Zindigänïnämah-yi Aqü Najafi Quchänï (Mashhad, 1351/1972), pp. 314-316.
38. NAI FD Secret-E June 1908-Baghdad no. 268 Ramsay to Butler, 30 March 1908; FO 195/2309 Baghdad no. 929-106 Political Diary for the Baghdad Residency for the week ending 30 August 1909; L/PS/10/77 Baghdad no. 1053 Ramsay to Butler, 20 October 1909.
39. For an analysis of the patronage system in the "Atabät, see Meir Litvak, Shfï Scholars of Nineteenth Century Iraq (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 29ff.
40. NAI FD Secret-E April 1908 Proceedings nos 214-222-Baghdad no. 844 Ramsay to Secretary to GIFD, 30 September 1907.
41. NAI FD General B-July 1909 Proceedings nos 191-192-Acting Consul General for Persia Calcutta to Secretary to GIFD, 19 June 1909; LPS/10/77 Baghdad no. 312 Lorimer to Butler, 11 April 1910.
42. Ibid.
43. L/PS/10/77 Baghdad Ramsay to Sayyid Ahmad, 13 February 1909.
44. Ibid., Allahabad no. 78, Holmes to Secretary to GIFD, 17 December 1907; ibid.. Internal Memorandum by R. E. Holland, 7 November 1907; Minute L. W. Dane, 1 January 1908.
45. L/PS/10/77 Baghdad no. 1131 Ramsay to Dane, 20 December 1907.
46. FO 195/2274 Baghdad no. 122-18 Political Diary for Baghdad Residency for week ending 11 February 1908.
47. NAI FD General-B Proceeding 101, November 1909-Baghdad no. 980 Ramsay to Butler, 22 September 1909; L/PS/10A77 Baghdad no. 1053 Ramsay to Butler, 20 October 1909.
48. Ibid.-Enclosure to Mulla Muhammad Kazem Khorasani, 21 September 1909.
49. L/PS/10/77 Replies from Najaf enclosed in Baghdad no. 1053 Ramsay to Butler, 20 October 1909. Abdul Hadi Hairi's claim in his Encyclopedia Iranien article 'Akhund Khoräsa??nï that Khorâsânî's statement was in response to British protests against his use of the money for political purposes in Iran is not supported by the evidence.
50. FO 248/851 Baghdad no. 575 Ramsay to Butler, 1 July 1908.
51. FO 195/2309 Baghdad no. 338-33 Ramsay to Barclay, 5 April 1909; ibid., Translation of letter no. 71 dated 2 April 1909 from Vice Consul at Karbalä to H.B.M.'s Consul at Baghdad; FO 195/2309 Baghdad no. 362 Ramsay to Barclay, 12 April 1909; NAI FD Secret-E, August 1909 Proceedings nos 207-230 Baghdad no. 425 Ramsay to Minister at Tehran, 4 May 1909; FO 195/2309 Baghdad no. 529 Ramsay to Barclay, 25 May 1909
52. L/PS/10/77 Baghdad no. 312 Lorimer to Butler, 11 April 1910.
53. L/PS/10/77 Baghdad no. 312 Lorimer to Butler 11 April 1910; ibid., Baghdad no. 774 Lorimer to Secretary to GIFD, 3 September 1910; FO 195/2368 Baghdad no. 689 Lorimer to McMahon, 11 August 1911.
54. L/PS/10/77 United Provinces Government no. 302 Hose to Secretary to GOI, 18 March 1911; ibid., Simla no. 1074 Assistant Secretary FD to Lorimer, 7 June 1911; ibid., Baghdad no. 689 Lorimer to McMahon, 11 August 1911; NAI FD General A, June 1912 Proceedings nos 7-33-Simla, Patterson to Lorimer, 28 September 1912; ibid.. Proceeding no. 19 Memorandum to India Office, 10 August 1911.
55. NAI FD General A Proceedings nos 7-33, June 12-Lorimer to Clarke, 29 January 1911.
56. L/PS/10/77 Baghdad no. 689 Lorimer to McMahon, 11 August 1911.
57. LPS/10/77 Baghdad no. 764 Lorimer to McMahon, 28 August 1912.
58. LPS/10/212 Summary of Events in Turkish Iraq for the Month of March-April, and for December 1911. For British relations with the 'ulamä' in Iran at that period see, Nakash, The Shïs ..., p. 60.
59. LPS/10/212 Summary of events in Turkish Iraq for the Months of March and April 1912; LPS/10/77 Extracts from Events in Turkish Iraq for the Month of May 1912; LPS/10/77 Baghdad no. 764 Lorimer to McMahon, 28 August 1912.
60. LPS/10/77 Extracts from Events in Turkish Iraq for the Month of May 1912; LPS/10/77 Baghdad no. 764 Lorimer to McMahon, 28 August 1912; NAI FD General A-Proceedings March 1913 nos 25-43-Extracts from the diary of the Resident for December 1912; NAI FPD General A, July 1914 Proceedings nos 1-13 Extracts from the diary of the Resident for March 1913; LPS/10/77 Baghdad no. 1137 Lorimer to Wood, 15 November 1913.
61. LPS/10/77 Baghdad no. 1137 Lorimer to Wood, 15 November 1913; NAI FD General A, March 1913 Proceedings nos 25-43-Naini Tal no. 1164 Bums to Secretary to GIFD, 31 August 1912; NAI FPD General A, July 1914 Proceedings nos 1-13-Baghdad no. 463 Lorimer to Secretary to GIFD, 3 May 1913.
62. One such idea was to appeal to Muslim public opinion in India by creating a Shï enclave under British protection in southern Iraq, see NAI FPD War B (Secret) February 1917 Proceedings no. 182-Telegram Secretary of State for India to Viceroy, 19 October 1914.
63. NAIFPD Secret General, August 1916 Proceedings nos 1-21-Telegram no. 139-B Cox to Secretary to GIFD, 27 January 1915; Simla Telegram no. 12-S Secretary GIFD to Cox, 5 March 1915; Delhi, Telegram no. D.S-337 Secretary to GIFD, 23 March 1915; NAI FD Secret-General, August 1916 Proceedings nos 1-21 KW Notes Proceedings 8.
64. NAI FD Secret-General, August 1916 Proceedings nos 1-21 KW Notes Proceedings no. 10-Telegram no. 667B from Cox [no addressee], 27 March 1915; Basra Cox to Law, 7 June 1916; FO 371/4198 Baghdad no. 17819-50-1 Wilson to Secretary to GIFPD, 29 August 1918; 371/4198 Baghdad no. 26454-50-1 Appendix Wilson to Secretary to GIFPD, 29-30 August 1919.
65. FO 248/1250 Baghdad no. 25325-50-1 Wilson to Grant, 14 November 1918.
66. Nakash, The Shïs ..., pp. 60-61; Ja'far al Mahbüba, Mädïal-Najaf wa-hädiruhä, 3 vols (Najaf, 1955-1958) pp. 340-341; Jean Pierre Luizard, La Formation de L'Irak Contemporain: Le Role Politique des Ulemas Chiites a la Fin de la Domination Ottomane et au Moment de la Construction de l'Etat Irakien (Paris: CNRS, 1991), pp. 319ff.
67. FO 371/4198 Baghdad no. 17819-50-1 Wilson to Secretary to GIFPD, 29 August 1918; FO248/1250 Baghdad no. 3177-50-1 Wilson to Political Officers at Najaf and Karbalä, 28 January 1919.
68. FO 371/4198 Baghdad no. 17819-50-1 Wilson to Secretary to GIFPD, 29 August 1918; FO248/1250 Baghdad no. 25325-50-1 Wilson to Grant, 14 November 1918.
69. FO 371/4198 Baghdad no. 17819-50-1 Wilson to Secretary to GIFPD, 29 August 1918; FO248/1250 Baghdad no. 25325-50-1 Wilson to Grant, 14 November 1918; ibid., Baghdad no. 3177-50-1 Wilson to Political Officers at Najaf and Karbala??, 28 January 1919; FO 371/4198 Memo no. 663 Assistant Political Officer Karbala' to Civil Commissioner Baghdad, 21-23 April 1919.
70. FO 371/4198 Baghdad no. 19656-50-1 Wilson to Secretary to GIFPD, 1 July 1919; ibid.. Memorandum no. 320 Assistant Political Officer Karbalä to Wilson Enclosed in Baghdad no. 26454-50-1 Wilson to Secretary to GIFPD, 29-30 August 1919.
71. FO 371/4198 Memorandum no. 320 Assistant Political Officer Karbalä' to Wilson Enclosed in Baghdad no. 26454-50-1 Wilson to Secretary to GIFPD, 29-30 August 1919.
72. FO 371/4198 Simla no. 61-G. From Assistant Secretary to GIFD to Acting Civil Commissioner Baghdad, 31 October 1919; Nakash, The Shïs ..., pp. 226-227.
73. Nakash, The Shïs .... p. 225.
74. FO 371/4198 Baghdad no. 17819-50-1 Wilson to Secretary to GIFPD, 29 August 1918.
75. Nakash, The Shïs ..., pp. 63-65; Luizard, La Formation..., pp. 365-379. For Shïräzïs refusal, see FO 248/1250 Baghdad no. 25325-50-1 Wilson to Grant, 14 November 1918.
76. Nakash, The Shïs ..., pp. 66-67; 'Ali al-Wardï, Lamahät Ijtimäiyya min Ta'rïkh al-'Iräq al-Hadlth, 5 vols, 5(1) (Baghdäd, 1969-1978), pp. 110-111.
77. Nakash, The Shïs ..., pp. 67-72; Hanna Batatu, The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements in Iraq (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), p. 88; Luizard, La Formation..., pp. 385ff; Elie Kedourie, "The Iraqi Shi'is and their Fate', in Martin Kramer (ed.) Shfism, Resistance and Revolution (Boulder: Westview Press, 1987), pp. 146-150.
78. Among many such indications, see Consul Tweedie's acknowledgement in 1890 of the difficulty for any British Resident to select, let alone control, suitable distributors owing to his lack of intimate knowledge of the 'ulamä' in P/3742 GIFD-Extemal Baghdad no. 123 Tweedie to Thomton, 12 March 1890. Likewise, the fact that Newmarch sent his dragoman to the 'Atabät to find out who the important mujtahids were reveals considerable ignorance of the situation there. For the limitations of the power of mujtahids vis-à-vis their followers, see Litvak, Shï Scholars ..., pp. 110-111.