‘Indian Money’ and the Shi'i Shrine Cities of Iraq, 1786–1850

Middle Eastern Studies

Volumn 22, Issue 4, 1986, Pages 461-480

  Cole, Juan R I ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 84963483279     PISSN: 00263206     EISSN: 17437881     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00263208608700677     Document Type: Article

References (89)

1. Lawrence Lockhart, The Fall of the Safavi Dynasty and the Afghan Occupation of Persia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1958).
2. See Hamid Algar, ‘Shi'ism and Iran in the Eighteenth Century’, in T. Naff and R. Owen, (eds.), Studies in Eighteenth Century Islamic History (Carbondale, III.: Southern Illinois University Press, 1977), pp. 288–302.
3. For this struggle in the Safavid period, see A.K.S. Lambton, State and Government in Medieval Islam: An Introduction to the Study of Islamic Political Theory. The Jurists. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981), Chapter XV
4. Said Amir Arjomand, The Shadow of God and the Hidden Imam (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984).
5. For eighteenth-century developments see Juan Cole, ‘Shi'i Clerics in Eighteenth Century Iraq and Iran: The Akhbari-Usuli Controversy Reconsidered’, Iranian Studies, 18,1 (1985): 394
6. G. Scarcia, ‘Intorno alle controversie tra Ahbari e Usuli presso gli Imamiti di Persia’, Rivista degli Studi Orientali 33 (1958): 211–50;
7. for issues in jurisprudence see Harald Löschner, Die dogmatischen Grundlagen des š i'itischen Rechts (Cologne: Karl Heymans Verlag, 1971);
8. for religious taxes see A. Sachedina, ‘Al-Khums: The Fifth in the Imami Shi'i Legal System’, Journal of Near East Studies 39 (1980): 276–89.
9. For Bihbahani see Aqa Ahmad Bihbahani, ‘Mir’ at al-ahwal-i jahan-nama’, Persian MS add. 24,052, foll. 45a ff., British Library, London;
10. ‘Ali Davvani, Ustad-i kull Aqa Muhammad Baqir b. Muhammad Akmal ma'ruf bih Vahid-i Bihbahani (Qumm: Chapkhanah-‘i Dar al-‘Ilm, 1958).
11. For the Mamluks in eighteenth-century Iraq see ‘Abdu'r-Rahman as Suwaydi, in ‘Imad A. Ra'uf (ed.), Tarikh hawadith Baghdad wa'l-Basrah min 1186 ila 1192 H./1772-1778 M., (Baghdad: Wizarat ath-Thaqafah wa'l-Funun, 1978);
12. A.M.K. Nawras, Hukm al-mamlik fi al-‘Iraq, 1750–1831 (Baghdad: Wizarat al-I'lam, 1975);
13. S. Longrigg, Four Centuries of Modern Iraq (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1925).
14. For the political history of North India in this period see Richard B. Barnett, North India Between Empires: Awadh, the Mughals, and the British, 1720–1801 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1980).
15. For basic materials for the biography of Sayyid Dildar ‘Ali Nasirabadi see ‘A'inah-'i haqq-nama’, Rijal Shi'ah, Persian MS 1, Nasiriyyah Library, Lucknow;
16. for analysis see Juan R.I. Cole, Roots of North Indian Shi'ism in Iran and Iraq: Religion and State in Awadh (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, forthcoming).
17. Muhammad Muhtashim Khan, ‘Tarikh-i Muhtashim Khani’, Persian MS H.L. 156, foll. 129b–130a, Khodabakhsh Oriental Public Library, Patna;
18. Kamalu'd-Din Haydar Mashadi, Savanihat-i salatin-i Avadh (Lucknow: Naval Kishor, 1897), p. 113;
19. Sayyid'Abbas Ardistani, ‘al-Hisn al-matin fi ahwal al-wuzara’ wa's-salatin’, 2 vols., New Delhi, National Archives of India, Arabic MSS 235a, 235b, 1: 70;
20. Ja'far Al-Mahbubah an-Najafi, Madi an-Najaf wa hadiruha (Sidon: Matba'at al-‘Irfan, 1353/1934), p. 131 and note.
21. Aqa Ahmad Bihbahani, ‘Mir'at al-ahval-i jahan-nama’, foll. 58a–59b.
22. Hasan Riza Khan to Hajji Karbala'i Muhammad, 26 Rabi' I 1213, enclosure no. 55 in Resident to Vazir, 22 November 1806, For. Dept. Pol. Cons., 22 November 1806, No. 53, National Archives of India (NAI), New Delhi.
23. See Rahman 'Ali, Tazkirah-'i ‘ulama-yi Hind (Lucknow: Naval Kishor, 1914), pp. 99–100;
24. Qiyamu'd-Din Muhammad 'Abdu'l-Bari Farangi-Mahalli, Athar al-awwal min ‘ulama’ Faranji Mahall (Lucknow: Matba‘-i Mujtaba'i, 1321/1903), p. 16.
25. On Iranian merchants and trade in this period, see A.K.S. Lambton, ‘The Case of Haji'Abd al-Karim: A Study in the Role of the Merchants in Mid-Nineteenth Century Persia’, in C.E. Bosworth (ed.), Iran and Islam, in Memory of the late Vladimir Minorsky, (Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press, 1971);
26. her ‘Persian Trade under the Early Qajars’, in D.S. Richards (ed.), Islam and the Trade of Asia, (Oxford: Bruno Cassirer, 1970).
27. Tom Nieuwenhuis, Politics and Society in Early Modern Iraq: Mamluk Pashas, Tribal Shayks and Local Rule between 1802 and 1831 (The Hague: Martinius Nijhoff, 1982), p. 130.
28. Vazir to Resident, 11 September 1816, For. Dept. Pol. Cons., 20 February 1818, No. 47; Political Agent, Baghdad, to Chief Secretary to the Government, Bombay, 10 September 1817, For. Dept. Pol. Cons., 20 February 1818, No. 53. For Iraqi political leadership in this period see Nieuwenhuis, Early Modern Iraq
29. ‘Abdu'l-'Aziz S. Nawwar, Da'ud Basha Wali Baghdad (Cairo: al-Maktabah al-‘Arabiyyah, 1968).
30. Secretary to the Govenment of India to Resident, 30 December 1815, For. Dept. Pol. Cons., 30 December 1815, No. 32. For growing European influence in Awadh in the first half of the nineteenth century see John Pemble, The Raj, the Indian Mutiny and the Kingdom of Oudh 1801–1859 (London: Harvester Press, 1977)
31. Resident to Secretary to the Government of India in the Political Department, For. Dept. Pol. Cons., 9 November 1816, No. 17. For Mirza Muhammad Husayn Shahristani (d. 1840) see Muhammad 'Ali Mu'allim Habibabadi, Makarim al-athar dar ahval-i rijal-i dawrah-'i Qajar, 2 vols. (Isfahan: Matba‘-i Muhammadi, 1958), 2:613, where he is described as Mirza Muhammad Mihdi's grandson through a daughter.
32. By Sayyid Muhammad, Bahu Begam almost certainly meant the son of Sayyid ‘Ali Tabataba'i, who inherited his father's position of leadership in Karbala, passing away in 1826–27 while accompanying Fath-‘Ali Shah's expedition against the Russians; see Muhammad Baqir Khvansari, Rawdat al-jannat fi ahwal al-‘ulama’ wa's-sadat, 8 vols. (Tehran: Maktabat-i Isma'iliyan 1390/1970), 7: 145–7.
33. For the political significance of Bahu Begam's will, see Barnett, North India, pp. 237–8.
34. Nasirabadi. ‘Najat as-sa'ilin’, Fiqh Shi'ah, Persian MS 256, fol. 23b, Nasiriyyah Library, Lucknow.
35. Musharraf 'Ali Khan Lakhnavi (ed.), Bayaz-i masa'il, 3 vols. (Lucknow: n.p., 1251/1835-36), 3:26; the fatwa is signed by Sayyid Muhammad.
36. Cf. Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, trans. Talcott Parsons (New York: Charles Schribner's Sons, 1958)
37. R.H. Tawney, Religion and the Rise of Capitalism (New York: Penguin Books, repr. 1947), esp. pp. 91–115.
38. For ideological accommodation to merchant capitalism in Muslim countries see S.D. Goitein, ‘The Rise of the Middle Eastern Bourgeoisie in Early Islamic Times’, in idem., Studies in Islamic History and Institutions (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1968), pp. 217–41;
39. Maxime Rodinson, Islam and Capitalism, trans. Brian Pearce (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1978);
40. Peter Gran, The Islamic Roots of Capitalism (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979).
41. Proposed Deed between King and Company, 17 August 1825, For. Dept. Pol. Cons., 16 September 1825, No. 37; other deeds have similar clauses.
42. See Sayyid Kazim Rashti, ‘Dalil al-mutahayyirin’, Curzon Collection, Persian trans., MS 831, Asiatic Society Library, Calcutta;
43. Muhammad 'Ali Kashmiri, Nujum as-sama’ fi tarajim al-‘ulama’ (Lucknow: Matba‘-i Ja'fari, 1302/1884-85), pp. 367, 397.
44. For recent published scholarship on the Shaykhis see Henry Corbin, En Islam iranien, Vol. 4 (Paris; Gallimard, 1972)
45. Mangol Bayat, Mysticism and Dissent: Socioreligious Thought in Qajar Iran (Syracuse University Press, 1982).
46. For Usuli views of ‘Azimabadi and his teachings see Muhammad Mihdi Lakhnavi Kashmiri, Nujum as-sama’: takmilah, 2 vols. (Qumm: Maktabat-i Basirati, 1397-1977) 1:42–43;
47. Sayyid Muhammad ‘Abbas Shushtari, ‘al-Ma'adin adh-dhahabiyyah, Adab ‘Arabi, MS 4446, pp. 76–77, Raza Library, Rampur;
48. Sayyid Husayn Nasirabadi, ‘Al-Fawa'id al-Husayniyyah’, ‘Aqa'id Shi'ah, Arabic MS 101, Nasiriyyah Library, Lucknow.
49. Murtaza Mudarrisi Chahardihi, Shaykhigari va Babigari: az nazar-i falsafah, tarikh, ijtima’ (Tehran: Kitabfurushi-yi Furughi 1966), p. 177;
50. see Denis M. MacEoin,‘From Shaykhism to Babism’(Ph.D. dissertation, Cambridge University, 1979), p. 111.
51. Sayyid Muhammad ‘Abbas Shushtari, ed., ‘az-Zill al-mamdud’, Arabic MS in the Library of the Raja of Mahmudabad, Lucknow, pp. 274–9 (an important collection of letters between the ulama in Najaf and Karbala and those in Awadh, compiled in 1849).
52. For the policies of the Awadh government in the 1840s see Safi Ahmad, Two Kings of Awadh: Muhammad Ali Shah and Amjad Ali Shah (1837–47) (Aligargh: P.C. Dwadash Shreni & Co., 1971).
53. Political Department, Ft. William, to the Resident, Lucknow, 23 October 1841, For. Dept. For. Cons., 25 October 1841, Nos.25-6.
54. For the British in Iraq see M.G.I. Khan, ‘British Policy in Iraq 1828–43’, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bangladesh 18 (1973): 173–94.
55. Sayyid Ibrahim al-Musawi al- Ha'iri [Qazvini] to Muhammad ‘Ali Shah, Rabi’ II 1257/June-July 1841, Persian MS 271, Regional Archives, Allahabad.
56. Political Agent in Turkish Arabia to Secret Committee, 27 January 1842, For. Dept. Secret Cons., 30 March 1842, Nos.34-5.
57. Sayyid Ibrahim al- Musawi al-Ha'iri [Qazvini] to Amjad ‘Ali Shah, Persian MS 272, Regional Archives, Allahabad.
58. Muhammad Hasan an-Najafi (d. 1850), the author of Jawahir al-kalam, was widely recognized toward the end of his life as the preeminent leader of the Imami community;
59. see Khvansari, Rawdat al-jannat, 2: 304–6
60. M.M. Kashmiri, Nujum as-sama': takmilah, I: 71–84.
61. Shushtari (ed.), ‘az-Zill al-mamdud’, pp. 145–6.
62. J.G. Lorimer, Gazeteer of the Persian Gulf, ‘Oman and Central Arabia, 2 vols. (Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing, India, 1908–1915, reproduced, London, 1970), I: 1348–58;
63. for further sources on this rebellion and analysis see Juan R.I. Cole and Moojan Momen, ‘Mafia, Mob and Shi'ism in Iraq: the Rebellion of Ottoman Karbala, 1824–1843’, Past and Present, 112 (August 1986): 172–430.
64. Shushtari (ed.), ‘az-Zill al-mamdud’, pp. 126–37.
65. Ibid., pp. 139–44.
66. Ibid., pp. 316–327.
67. Ibid., pp. 328–334.
68. Ibid., pp. 398–422.
69. Secretary to the Government of India in the Foreign Department to Political Agent in Turkish Arabia, 8 October 1852, For. Dept. For. Cons., 22 December 1852, No. 5.
70. Shushtari (ed.), ‘az-Zill al-.mamdud’, pp. 74–7.
71. Note dated 30.8.61 enclosure with Off. Secretary to Chief Commissioner, Oudh, to Secretary to the Government of India, 27 April 1874; Lorimer, Gazeteer of the Persian Gulf, 1: 264–5.
72. Shushtari (ed.), ‘az-Zill al-mamdud’, pp. 199–203.
73. For Sayyid Ibrahim Qazvini's very large classrooms, partly a function of the resources at his disposal, see Muhamad Tunikabuni, Qisas al-‘ulama’ (Tehran: Kitabfurushi-yi ‘Ilmiyyah-‘i Islamiyyah, n.d.), pp. 4 ff.
74. The letter is in Shushtari (ed.), ‘az-Zill al-mamdud’, pp. 87–101.
75. For a brief biographical notice of Astarabadi see M.M. Kashmiri, Nujum as-sama’: takmilah, 1: 395; he later became a student of the great Shi'i leader Murtaza Ansari in Najaf.
76. In Shushtari (ed.), ‘az-Zill al-mamdud’, pp. 105–10;
77. for Sayyid ‘Ali Naqi see Sayyid Muhammad Hadi al-Kazimi, Ahsan at-wadi ‘ah fi tarajim mashahir mujtahidi ash-Shi'ah, 2 vols. (Najaf: al-Matba'ah al-Haydariyyah, 1968), 2: 223–6.
78. In Shushtari (ed.), ‘az-Zill al-mamdud’, pp. 111–14.
79. In ibid., p. 487.
80. See ibid., pp. 200, 489.
81. Ibid., p. 492.
82. Shushtari, ‘al-Ma'adin adh-dhahabiyyah’, p. 14.
83. Khvansari, Rawdat al-jannat, 2: 305.
84. Murtaza al-Ansari Al-Shaykh, Zindigani va shakhsiyyat-i Shaykh Ansari, (Ahwaz?: n.p., 1380/1960-61), pp. 72–4;
85. see Juan R. Cole, ‘imami Jurisprudence and the Role of the Ulama: Mortaza Ansari on Emulating the Supreme Exemplar’, in Nikki R. Keddie (ed.), Religion and Politics in Iran: Shi'ism from Quietism to Revolution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983), pp. 33–46;
86. Hamid Algar Religion and State in Iran 1785–1906: The Role of the Ulama in the Qajar Period (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of Calfornia Press, 1969), pp. 162–5.
87. M.M. Kashmiri, Nujum as-sama’: takmilah, 1: 123.
88. In Shushtari (ed,), ‘az-Zill al-mamdud’, p. 408.
89. In ibid., pp. 67–68.