Legitimation and identification in Kazakhstan

Nationalism and Ethnic Politics

Volumn 12, Issue 2, 2006, Pages 177-204

  Cummings, Sally N ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ST ANDREWS   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ELITE POLITICS; PERCEPTION; STATE BUILDING;

ASIA; EURASIA; KAZAKHSTAN; WEST ASIA;

WEBERIA;

EID: 33745069988     PISSN: 13537113     EISSN: 15572986     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13537110600734547     Document Type: Article

References (96)

1. Peter L. Berger, The Sacred Canopy: Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion (Garden City, NY, Doubleday, 1967), p. 31,
2. cited by Rodney Barker, Legitimating Identities: The Self-Presentations of Rulers and Subjects (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 47, p. 50.
3. Jorn Holm-Hansen refers to this process as "re-ethnification." See his "Political Integration in Kazakhstan," in Pal Kolsto, Nation-Building and Ethnic Integration in Post-Soviet Societies: An Investigation of Latvia and Kazakhstan (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1999), pp. 153-226, especially p. 167.
4. Azamat Sarsembayev, "Imagined Communities: Kazak Nationalism and Kazakification in the 1990s," Central Asian Survey, Vol. 18, No. 3 (1999), pp. 319-46.
5. Itogi perepisi naseleniia 1999 goda v Respublike Kazakhstana. Vol. 1. Natsional'nyi sostav naseleniia RK.
6. Seweryn Bialer, "The Question of Legitimacy," in David Held et al. (eds.), States & Societies, p. 419.
7. From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, translated H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (eds.) (London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, and New York, Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 77-9.
8. Max Weber, Economy and Society, Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich (eds.), 2 vols. (London: University of California Press, 1978), Vol. 1, p. 213,
9. cited by Baker, Legitimating Identities, p. 45.
10. Weber, Economy, p. 953,
11. cited by Barker, Legitimating Identities, p. 45.
12. Karl Deutsch, "The Commitment of National Legitimacy Symbols as a Verification Technique," The Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 7, No. 3 (September 1963), pp. 342-62.
13. Thomas Luckman, "Comments on Legitimation," Current Sociology, Vol. 35, No. 2 (1987), pp. 109-17.
14. Inis Claude argues that an imperial government could be established only once "authority within ruling elites" had been legitimated. Inis L. Claude, Jr., "Collective Legitimization as a Political Function of the United Nations," International Organization, Vol. 20 (1966), pp. 367-79, p. 368.
15. Barker, Legitimating Identities, p. 47, p. 50.
16. Ibid., p. 50.
17. Ibid., p. 42.
18. Geoffrey Roberts, A Dictionary of Political Analysis (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1971), p. 79.
19. Andrew F. March, "State Ideology and the Legitimation of Authoritarianism: The Case of post-Soviet Uzbekistan," Journal of Political Ideologies, Vol. 8, No. 2 (2003), pp. 209-32.
20. See, for example, Hansen, "Political Integration"
21. Cynthia Werner, "Women, Marriage, and the Nation-State: The Rise of Nonconsensual Bride Kidnapping in Post-Soviet Kazakhstan,"
22. and Bhavna Dave, "A Shrinking Reach of the State? Language Policy and Implementation in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan," in Pauline Jones Luong (ed.), The Transformation of Central Asia: States and Societies from Soviet Rule to Independence (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2004), pp. 59-92 and 120-58 respectively.
23. For discussions of legitimation more broadly see: Pal Kolsto, "Anticipating Demographic Superiority: Kazakh Thinking on Integration and Nation Building," Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 50, No. 1 (1998), pp. 51-69
24. and Edward Schatz, "Framing Strategies and Non-Conflict in Multi-Ethnic Kazakhstan," Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, Vol. 6, No. 2 (Summer 2000), p. 489
25. and his "The Politics of Multiple Identities: Lineage and Ethnicity in Kazakhstan," Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 52, No. 3 (2000), pp. 489-506.
26. Nursultan Nazarbaev, Ideinaia Konsolidatsiia Obshchestva - Kak Uslovie Progressa Kazakhstana, Almaty 1993
27. Obnovlennomu Kazakhstanu-cherez uglublenie reform, obshchenational'noe soglasie (Almaty: Kazakhstan, 1994; Speech to Parliament on 9 June 1994)
28. Za mir i soglasie v nashem obshchem dome (Almaty, 1995)
29. and Kontseptsii formirovaniia (1996).
30. Nazarbaev, Ideinaia Konsolidatsiia, pp. 24-5.
31. Ibid., p. 24.
32. Kazakhstanskaia pravda, 25 May 1996
33. cited inMartha Brill Olcott, Kazakhstan: Unfulfilled Promise (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2002), p. 61.
34. Edward Schatz, "What Capital Cities Say About State and Nation Building," Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, Vol. 9 (2004), p. 127.
35. Kazakhstanskaia pravda, 25 May 1996,
36. cited in Olcott, Kazakhstan: Unfulfilled, p. 61.
37. Obnovlennomu Kazakhstanu-cherez uglublenie reform, p. 18.
38. See N.A. Narzbaev, Yevraziiskii Soyuz: Idei, praktika, perspektivy 1994-1997 (Moscow: Fond sodeistviya razvitiyu sotsial'nykh i politicheskikh nauk, 1997).
39. Kasenov, The Institutions and Conduct, p. 265.
40. Schatz, "What Capital Cities Say," p. 130.
41. Kazakhstanskaia pravda, 25 May 1996,
42. cited in Olcott, Kazakhstan: Unfulfilled, p. 61.
43. Suverennomu Kazakhstanu -10 let, 1992.
44. Olcott, Kazakhstan: Unfulfilled, p. 53.
45. Edward Schatz writes how the lack of resources explains why "'ethnicity based compensation'" in policies were not implemented, creating instead "a broad discourse of ethnic redress that was left to individual actors in individual locales to translate into political practice." See his "Framing Strategies and Non-Conflict," p. 489.
46. Nursultan Nazarbaev, Kazakhstan-2030: Poslanie Prezidenta Strany Narodu Kazakhstana (Almaty: Bilim, 1998), p. 9.
47. They are: (1) territorial integrity and stability; (2) political stability and consolidated society; (3) economic growth; (4) health, education and welfare of Kazakhstanis; (5) energy resources; (6) infrastructure; (7) professional state.
48. On decentralization in the Soviet and early independence era, see Pauline Jones Luong, Institutional Change and Political Continuity in Post-Soviet Central Asia: Power, Perceptions, and Pacts (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
49. See Sally N. Cummings, Kazakhstan: Centre-Periphery Relations (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs and Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 2000).
50. For further ramifications, see Schatz, "The Politics."
51. Kolsto, "Anticipating," p. 58.
52. Barker, Legitimating Identities, p. 99.
53. March, "State Ideology," p. 216.
54. Olcott, Kazakhstan: Unfulfilled, p. 58.
55. Natsuko Oka, "Nationalities policy in Kazakhstan: Interviewing political and cultural elites," in Nurbulat Masanov, Erlan Karin, Andrei Chebotarev and Natsuko Oka, The Nationalities Question in Post-Soviet Kazakhstan, Chiba: Institute of Developing Economies, JETRO, M.E.S. Series No. 51, 2002, pp. 109-45. Neither of these samples claims to be representative. The author's sample was selected on the basis of the "snowball method," a process that begins with incumbents of formal positions who are then asked to name further individuals of power and influence. For more details on Oka's sample, see pp. 112-14. The 1995-96 set of interviews uses in-depth interviewing with topic guides, the 2000-01 set a written survey that gives scope for detailed qualitative replies. Nor are the two groups interviewed precisely comparable. While the first group is almost exclusively political and in power, the second incorporates several intellectual elites and ex-political elites. Oka classifies these into five groups: Kazakh nationalists, Kazakh intellectuals, Russian nationalists, Russian intellectuals and intellectuals of ethnic minorities. The similarities in findings, however, lend these two sets to careful comparison and suggests that each set represents more than a snapshot of reality. Unless stated otherwise, quotations cited are illustrative 'of typical responses from an interviewee's ethnic group.
56. Author's Interview, 17 January 1996.
57. Karlin and Chebotarev in Masanov et al., The Nationalities Question, pp. 72-3.
58. Nazarbaev, Kazakhstan-2030, p. 16.
59. Oka, "Nationalities Policy," p. 126.
60. Author's Interview, 30 September 1996.
61. Kolsto, "Anticipating," p. 56.
62. Etnopoliticheskii monitoring v Kazakhstane, Vols 1-3, Autumn 1995, Winter 1995/6 and Spring 1996.
63. A.L. Epstein, Ethos and Identity: Three Studies in Ethnicity (London: Tavistock, 1978), pp. 102-3.
64. See the excellent discussion on elites and identity by Mark R. Beissinger (ed.), "Elites and Ethnic Identities in Soviet and Post-Soviet Politics," in The Post-Soviet Nations: Perspectives on the Demise of the USSR (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992), pp. 141-69, here, p. 149.
65. Author's Interview, 23 November 1995.
66. Benjamin Akzin, State and Nation (London: Hutchinson University Library, 1964).
67. Beetham, The Legitimation, p. 16.
68. Michael Billig, Banal Nationalism (London: Sage, 1995).
69. Oka, "Nationalities policy," p. 117.
70. Author's Interview, 20 March 1996.
71. For an examination of Kazakhstan's rewriting of history, see Alexander C. Diener, "National Territory and the Reconstruction of History in Kazakhstan," Eurasian Geography and Economics, Vol. 43, No. 8 (2002), pp. 632-50.
72. Author's Interview, 4 November 1995.
73. Oka, "Nationalities policy," p. 125.
74. For excellent discussions of language issues, see both Bhavna Dave, "National Revival in Kazakhstan: Language Shift and Identity Change," Post-Soviet Affairs, Vol. 12, No. 1 (1996), pp. 51-72
75. and William Fierman, "Language and Identity in Kazakhstan: Formulations in Policy Documents 1987-1997," Communist and Post-Communist Studies, Vol. 31, No. 2 (1998), pp. 171-86.
76. Beetham, The Legitimation, p. 103.
77. Oka, "Nationalities policy," p. 116.
78. Olcott, Kazakhstan: Unfulfilled, p. 67.
79. Author's Interview, 28 February 1996.
80. Author's Interview, 27 February 1996.
81. Author's Interview, 20 March 1996.
82. Oka, "Nationalities Policy," p. 127 and 134.
83. Olcott, Kazakhstan: Unfulfilled, p. 55.
84. Author's Interview, 7 November 1995.
85. Olcott, Kazakhstan: Unfulfilled, p. 56.
86. Ibid., p. 51.
87. Barker, Legitimating Identities, p. 220.
88. Alexander C. Diener, Homeland Conceptions and Ethnic Integration Among Kazakhstan's Germans and Koreans (Lewiston, Queenston, Lampeter: The Edwin Mellen Press, 2004), p. 3, note 5.
89. Berger, The Sacred Canopy, p. 31
90. cited by Barker, Legitimating Identities, p. 47.
91. Karavan, 15 December 1995 in Olcott, Kazakhstan: Unfulfilled, p. 58.
92. Author's Interview, 8 November 1995.
93. Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986), p. 31.
94. Olcott, Kazakhstan: Unfulfilled, p. 54.
95. Mancur Olson, "The Logic of Collective Action in Soviet-type Societies," Journal of Soviet Nationalities 1 (Summer 1990), pp. 8-27.
96. For a useful discussion of the links between legitimating principles and national collective identity, see Rodney Bruce Hall, National Collective Identity: Social Constructs and International Systems (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), pp. 39-50.