Gender differences in depression and smoking among youth in Cape Town, South Africa

Ethnicity and Disease

Volumn 16, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 41-50

  Fernander, Anita F ^c   Flisher, Alan J ^a   King, Gary ^d   Noubary, Farzad ^d   Lombard, Carl ^b   Price, Mystique ^e   Chalton, Derek ^e  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN   (South Africa)

^b SOUTH AFRICAN MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL   (South Africa)

^c UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY   (United States)

^d PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^e NONE

Author keywords

Depression; Gender; Racially classified social group differences; Smoking; South African youth

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ARTICLE; BECK DEPRESSION INVENTORY; CONTROLLED STUDY; CORRELATION ANALYSIS; DEPRESSION; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; DYSTHYMIA; ETHNICITY; FEMALE; HEALTH BEHAVIOR; HEALTH EDUCATION; HEALTH PROGRAM; HUMAN; JUVENILE; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MAJOR DEPRESSION; MALE; PREVALENCE; QUESTIONNAIRE; SCHOOL HEALTH SERVICE; SCORING SYSTEM; SCREENING; SEX DIFFERENCE; SMOKING; SOCIAL ASPECT; SOUTH AFRICA; STUDENT; CAUCASIAN; DEMOGRAPHY; ETHNOLOGY; INFORMATION PROCESSING; NEGRO;

ADOLESCENT; AFRICAN CONTINENTAL ANCESTRY GROUP; DATA COLLECTION; DEMOGRAPHY; DEPRESSION; EUROPEAN CONTINENTAL ANCESTRY GROUP; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; SEX FACTORS; SMOKING; SOUTH AFRICA;

EID: 33744974036     PISSN: 1049510X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (98)

1. Gilpin EA, Lee L, Evans N, Pierce J. Smoking initiation rates in adults and minors: US, 1944-1988. Am J Epidemiol. 1994;140(6):535-543.
2. Flisher AJ, Parry CD, Evans J, Muller M, Lombard C. Substance use by adolescents in Cape Town: prevalence and correlates. J Adolesc Health. 2003;32:58-65.
3. King G, Flisher AJ, Mallett R, et al. Smoking in Cape Town: community influences on adolescent tobacco use. Prev Med. 2003;36:114-123.
4. Institute of Medicine. Toward a youth-centered prevention policy. In: Lynch BS, Bonnie RJ, eds. Growing Up Tobacco Free: Preventing Nicotine Addiction in Children and Youths. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1994;3-28.
5. The Global Youth Tobacco Survey Collaborative Group. Tobacco use among youth: a cross country comparison. Tob Control. 2002;11:252-270.
6. World Health Organization. Smoking prevalence. In: Lopez A ed. Tobacco or Health: A Global Status Report. Geneva: Geneva World Health Organization; 1997a;1-8.
7. World Health Organization. Health effects. In: Lopez A, ed. Tobacco or Health: A Global Status Report. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1997b;43-48.
8. Aneshensel CS, Huba GJ. Depression, alcohol use, and smoking, over one year: a four-wave longitudinal causal model. J Abnorm Psychol. 1983;92:134-150.
9. Conrad KM, Flay BR, Hill D. Why children start smoking cigarettes: Predictors of onset. Br J Addict. 1992;87:1711-1724.
10. Chen X, Unger JB. Hazards of smoking initiation among Asian-American and non-Asian adolescents in California: a survival model analysis. Prev Med. 1999;2:589-599.
11. Chen X, Unger JB, Cruz TB, Johnson CA. Smoking patterns of Asian-American youth in California and their relationships with acculturation. J Adolesc Health. 1999;24:321-328.
12. Gritz ER, Prokhorov AV, Hudmon KS, et al. Cigarette smoking in a multiethnic population of youth: methods and baseline findings. Prev Med. 1998;27:365-384.
13. Johnston LD, O'Malley PM, Bachman JG. National Survey Results on Drug Use from the Monitoring the Future Study, 1975-1995. Rockville, Md: US Dept of Health and Human Services, Public Health Services, University of Michigan Institute for Social Research, National Institute on Drug Abuse National Institutes of Health; 1996.
14. King G. The "race" concept in smoking: a review of the research on African Americans. Soc Sci Med. 1997;45:1075-1087.
15. Koepke D, Flay BR, Johnson CA. Health behaviors in minority families: the case of cigarette smoking. Fam Community Health. 1990;13:35-43.
16. Landrine H, Richardson JL, Klonoff EA, Flay B. Cultural diversity in the predictors of adolescent cigarette smoking: the relative influence of peers. J Behav Med. 1994;17:331-346.
17. Mermelstein R. Explanations of ethnic and gender differences in youth smoking: a multisite, qualitative investigation. Nicotine Tob Res. 1999;1:S91-S98.
18. Nichter M. Smoking: what does culture have to do with it? Addiction. 2003;98(suppl 1):139-145.
19. Unger JB, Palmer A, Dent CW, Rohrbach LA, Johnson CA. Ethnic differences in adolescent smoking prevalence in California: are multiethnic youth at higher risk? Tob Control. 2000;9(suppl 2):II9-II14.
20. Unger J, Rohrbach LA, Cruz L, et al. Ethnic variation in peer influences on adolescent smoking. Nicotine Tob Res. 2001;3:167-176.
21. US Department of Health and Human Services. Preventing Tobacco Use Among Young People: A Report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, Md: US Dept of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health; 1994. Publication No. S/N 017-001-00491-0.
22. Kaufman NJ, Castrucci BC, Mowery PD, Gerlach KK, Emont S, Orleans CT. Predictors of change on the smoking uptake continuum among adolescents. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2002;156(6):581-587.
23. Wilcox P. An ecological approach to understanding youth smoking trajectories: problems and prospects. Addiction. 2003;98(suppl 1):57-77.
24. Alesci NL, Forster JL, Blaine T. Smoking visibility, perceived acceptability, and frequency in various locations among youth and adults. Prev Med. 2003;38(3):272-281.
25. Distelan JM, Gilpin EA, Choi WS, Pierce JP. Parental influences predict adolescent smoking in the United States, 1989-1993. J Adolesc Health. 1998;22:466-474.
26. Killen JD, Robinson TN, Haydel KF, et al. Prospective study of risk factors for the initiation of cigarette smoking. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1997;65:1011-1016.
27. Kobus K. Peers and adolescent smoking. Addiction. 2003;98(suppl 1):37-55.
28. Scal P, Ireland M, Borowsky IW. Smoking among American adolescents: a risk and protective factor analysis. J Community Health. 2003;28(2):79-97.
29. Wahlgren DR, Hovell MF, Slyman DJ, Conway TL, Hofstetter CR, Jones JA. Predictors of tobacco use initiation in adolescents: a two-year prospective study and theoretical discussion. Tob Control. 1997;6:95-103.
30. Newcomb MD, Maddahian EM, Bentler PM. Risk factors for drug use among adolescents: concurrent and longitudinal analyses. Am J Public Health. 1986;525-531.
31. Lewis PC, Harrell JS, Bradley C, Deng S. Cigarette use in adolescents: the Cardiovascular Health in Children and Youth Study. Res Nurs Health. 2001;24(1):27-37.
32. Zhu BP, Giovino GA, Mowery PD, Eriksen MP. The relationship between cigarette smoking and education revisited: implications for categorizing person's educational status. Am J Public Health. 1996;86:1582-1589.
33. Camp DE, Klesges RC, Relyea G. The relationship between body weight concerns and adolescent smoking. Health Psychol. 1993;12:24-32.
34. Dowdell EB. Urban seventh graders and smoking: a health risk behavior assessment. Issues Compr Pediatr Nursing. 2002;25(4):217-229.
35. Robinson LA, Klesges RC, Zbikowski SM, Glaser R. Predictors of risk for different stages of adolescent smoking in a biracial sample. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1997;65:653-662.
36. Acierno RA, Kilpatrick DG, Resnick HS, Saunders BE, De Arellano M, Best C. Assault, PTSD, family substance use, and depression as risk factors for cigarette use in youth: findings from the national survey of adolescents. J Trauma Stress. 2000;13(3):381-396.
37. Anda RF, Williamson DF, Escobedo LG, Mast EE, Giovino GA, Remington PL. Depression and the dynamics of smoking: a national perspective. JAMA. 1990;264:1541-1545.
38. Botvin GJ, Botvin EM. Adolescent tobacco, alcohol, and drug abuse: prevention strategies, empirical findings, and assessment issues. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1992;13:291-301.
39. Cicchetti D, Toth SL. The development of depression in children and adolescents. Am Psychol. 1998;53:221-241.
40. Coogan PF, Adams M, Geller AC, et al. Factors associated with smoking among children and adolescents in Connecticut. Am J Prev Med. 1998;15:17-24.
41. Covey LS, Tan D. Depressive mood, the single-parent home, and adolescent cigarette smoking. J Public Health. 1990;80:1330-1333.
42. Escobedo LG, Reddy M, Giovino GA. The relationship between depressive symptoms and cigarette smoking in US adolescents. J Abnorm Psychol. 1998;93:433-440.
43. Fergusson DM, Lynskey MT, Horwood J. Comorbidity between depressive disorders and nicotine dependence in a cohort of 16-year-olds. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1996;53:1043-1047.
44. Glass R. Blue mood, blackened lungs: depression and smoking. JAMA. 1990;264:1583-1584.
45. Goodman E, Capitman J. Depressive symptoms and cigarette smoking among teens. Pediatrics. 2000;106(4):748-755.
46. Kandel DB, Davies M, Karus D, Yamaguchi K. The consequences in young adulthood of adolescent drug involvement: an overview. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1986;43:746-754.
47. Kaplan SL, Hong GK, Weinhold C. Epidemiology of depressive symptomatology. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1984;23:91-98.
48. Patton GC, Carlin JB. Depression, anxiety, and smoking initiation retrospective study over 3 years. Am J Public Health. 1998;88:1518.
49. Reynolds I, Rob MI. The role of family difficulties in adolescent depression, drug-taking, and other behavioral problems. Med J Aust. 1989;149:250-256.
50. Simantov E, Schoen C, Klein J. Health-compromising behaviors: why do adolescents smoke or drink? Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2000;154:1025-1033.
51. Tyas S, Pederson L. Psychosocial factors related to adolescent smoking: a critical review of the literature. Tob Control. 1998;7(4):409-420.
52. Wang WA, Fitzhugh EC, Green BL, Turner LW, Eddy JM, Westerfield RC. Propective social-psychological factors of adolescent smoking progression. J Adolesc Health. 1999;24:2-9.
53. Bimaher B, Ryan ND, Williamson D. Childhood and adolescent depression: a review of the past 10 years. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1996;35:1427-1439.
54. Campell T, Byrne B, Baron P. Gender differences in the expression of depressive symptoms in early adolescents. J Early Adolesc. 1992;12:326-328.
55. Fleming JE, Offord SR, Boyle MH. Prevalence of childhood and adolescent depression in the community. Br J Psychiatry. 1989;155:647-655.
56. Kandel DB, Davies M. Epidemiology of depressive mood in adolescents: an empirical study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1982;39:1205-1212.
57. Lewinsohn P, Hops H, Roberts R, Seeley JR, Andrews JA. Adolescent psychopathology. I. Prevalence and incidence of depression and other DSM-III-disorders in high school students. J Abnorm Psychol. 1993;102(1):133-144.
58. Rutter M, Tizard J, Yule W, Graham P, Whitmore K. Isle of Wight studies 1964-1974. Psychiatry Med. 1976;6(2):313-332.
59. Weinberg WA, Emslie GJ. Weinburg Screening Affective Scales (WSAS and WSAS-SF). J Child Neurol. 1988;3:294-296.
60. Sarles R, Neinstein L. Depression. In: Neinstein LS, ed. Adolescent Health Care: A Practical Guide. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott, William, and Wilkins; 2002:1432-1442.
61. Schraedley PK, Gotlib IH, Hayward C. Gender differences in correlates of depressive symptoms in adolescents. J Adolesc Health. 1999;25:98-108.
62. Shaffer D, Gould MS, Fisher P, et al. Psychiatric diagnosis in child and adolescent suicide. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1996;53(4):339-348.
63. Fleming JE, Offord SR. Epidemiology of childhood depressive disorders: a critical review. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1990;29:571-580.
64. Kashani JH, Beck NC, Hoeper EW. Psychiatric disorders in a community sample of adolescents. Am J Psychiatry. 1987;144:584-589.
65. Reinhertz HZ, Giaconia RM, Silverman AB, et al. Early psychosocial risks for adolescent suicidal ideation and attempts. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1995;34(5):599-611.
66. Robertson BA, Ensink K, Parry CDH, Chalton D. Performance of the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children version 2.3. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1999;9:1156-1159.
67. Carmody T. Affect regulation, nicotine addiction, and smoking cessation. J Psychoactive Drugs. 1989;21:331-342.
68. Bérard RMF, Lockhart IA, Boermeester F, Tredoux V. Cigarette smoking in an adolescent psychiatric population. S Afr Med J. 2002;92:58-61.
69. Flisher AJ, Chalton DO. Urbanization and adolescent risk behavior. S Afr Med J. 2001;91:243-249.
70. Flisher AJ, Parry CD, Muller M, Lombard C. Stages of substance use among adolescents in Cape Town, South Africa. J Subst Abuse. 2002;7:162-167.
71. Flisher AJ, Ziervogel CF, Chalton DO, Leger PH, Roberson BA. Risk-taking behavior of Cape Penisula high-school students: Part III. Cigarette smoking. S Afr Med J. 1993;83(7):477-479.
72. Liang H, Flisher AJ, Chalton DO. Violence and substance use in adolescents with increasing severity of suicidal behavior. Arch Suicide Research. 2003;7:29-40.
73. Kandel DB. Stages in adolescent involvement in drug use. Science. 1975;190:912-914.
74. Kandel DB, Kessler RC, Margulies RZ. Antecedents of adolescent initiation into stages of drug use: a developmental analysis. J Youth Adolesc. 1978;7:13-40.
75. Beck AT, Steer RA. Manual for the Beck Depression Inventory. San Antonio, Tex: The Psychological Corporation; 1993.
76. Ellison GT, De Wet T, Ljsselmuiden CB, Richter L. Desegregating health statistics and health research in South Africa. S Afr Med J. 1996;86:1257-1262.
77. Cohen J. A coefficient of agreement of nominal scales. Educ Psychol Meas. 1960;20:37-46.
78. Flisher AJ, Evans J, Muller M, Lombard C. Test-retest reliability of self-reported adolescent risk behavior. J Adolesc. 2004;27:207-212.
79. Landis JR, Koch GG. The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics. 1977;33:159-174.
80. Ward CL, Flisher AJ, Zississ C, Muller M, Lombard C. Reliability of the Beck Depression Inventory and the Self-Rating Anxiety Scale in a sample of South African adolescents. Journal of Child and Adolescent Mental Health. 2003;15:73-75.
81. Brooks TL, Harris SK, Thrall JS, Woods ER. Association of adolescent risk behaviors with mental health symptoms in high school students. J Adolesc Health. 2002;31(3):240-246.
82. Fournet DL, Wilson KL, Wallander JL. Growing or just getting along? Technical and adaptive competence in coping among adolescents. Child Dev. 1998;69(4):1129-1144.
83. McGee ZT. Urban stress and mental health among African-American youth: assessing the link between exposure to violence, problem behavior, and coping strategies. J Cult Divers. 2001;8(3):94-104.
84. Kirshner K. Fostering the sense of self: group psychotherapy for girls in early adolescence. J Child Adolesc Group Therapy. 1994;4(1):27-43.
85. Abernathy T, Massas L, Romano-Dwyer L. The relationship between smoking and self-esteem. Adolescence. 1995;30(120):899-907.
86. Breslau N, Kilbey MM, Andreski P. Vulnerability to psychopathology in nicotine-dependent smokers: an epidemiologic study of youth adults. Am J Psychiatry. 1993;150:941-946.
87. Moore SM, Gullone E. Fear of weight gain: its correlates among school-aged adolescents. Psychol Rep. 1995;76:1305-1306.
88. Stoppard JM. Gender, psychosocial factors, and depression. In: Cappeliez P, Flynn RJ, eds. Depression and the Social Environment: Research and Intervention with Neglected Populations. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press; 1993:423.
89. King G, Flisher AJ, Noubary F, Reece R, Marais A, Lombard C. Substance abuse and behavioral correlates of sexual assault among South African adolescents. Child Abuse Neglect. 2004;28:683-696.
90. Calafat A, Amengual M, Palmer A, Saliba C. Drug use and its relationship to other behavior disorders and maladjustment signs among adolescents. Subst Use Misuse. 1997;32(1):1-24.
91. Hanna EZ, Yi H, Dufour MC, Whitmore CC. The relationship of early-onset regular smoking to alcohol use, depression, illicit drug use, and other risky behaviors during adolescence: results from the youth supplement to the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Subst Use Misuse. 2001;13:265-282.
92. Patten C, Gillin C, Farkas A, Gilpin E, Berry C, Pierce J. Depressive symptoms in California adolescents: family structure and parental support. J Adolesc Health. 1997;20:271-278.
93. Goodyer IM. The epidemiology of depression in childhood and adolescence. In: Verhulst FC, Koot HM, eds. The Epidemiology of Child and Adolescent Psychopathology. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1995:210-226.
94. Garrison CZ, Jackson KL, Marsteller F, McKeown R, Addy C. A longitudinal study of depressive symptomatology in young adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1990;29(4):581-585.
95. Emslie GJ, Weinberg WA, Rush AJ, Adams RM, Rintelmann JW. Depressive symptoms by self-report in adolescence: Phase I of the development of a questionnaire for depression by self-report. J Child Neurol. 1990;5(2):114-121.
96. Prescott CA, McArdle J, Hishinuma E. Prediction of major depression and dysthymia from CES-D scores among ethnic minority adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1998;37:495-503.
97. Schoenbach V, Kaplan B, Wagner E, Grimson R, Miller F. Prevalence of self-reported depressive symptoms in young adolescents. Am J Public Health. 1983;73(11):1281-1287.
98. Flisher AJ, Chalton D. High-school dropouts in a working-class South African community: Selected characteristics and risk-taking behavior. J Adolesc. 1995;18:105-121.