Psychotic major depression: A benefit-risk assessment of treatment options

Drug Safety

Volumn 29, Issue 6, 2006, Pages 491-508

  Tyrka, Audrey R ^a   Price, Lawrence H ^a   Mello, Marcelo F ^a   Mello, Andrea F ^a   Carpenter, Linda L ^a  

^a BUTLER HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMITRIPTYLINE; AMOXAPINE; ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; CITALOPRAM; CLOZAPINE; ESCITALOPRAM; FLUOXETINE; FLUVOXAMINE; GLUCOCORTICOID ANTAGONIST; HALOPERIDOL; IMIPRAMINE; MIFEPRISTONE; MIRTAZAPINE; MONOAMINE OXIDASE INHIBITOR; NEFAZODONE; NEUROLEPTIC AGENT; NORTRIPTYLINE; OLANZAPINE; PAROXETINE; PERPHENAZINE; PINDOLOL; QUETIAPINE; RISPERIDONE; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; SERTRALINE; THIORIDAZINE; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; UNINDEXED DRUG; VENLAFAXINE; ZIPRASIDONE;

ABDOMINAL PAIN; ADRENAL INSUFFICIENCY; AGITATION; BLURRED VISION; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COGNITIVE DEFECT; CONSTIPATION; DEPRESSIVE PSYCHOSIS; DIARRHEA; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DISORDERS OF CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM; DIZZINESS; DROWSINESS; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG COST; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG POTENTIATION; DRUG RESEARCH; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG TOLERABILITY; DYSLIPIDEMIA; ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY; ENZYME INHIBITION; ERECTILE DYSFUNCTION; EXTRAPYRAMIDAL SYMPTOM; EXTRAPYRAMIDAL SYNDROME; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; GYNECOMASTIA; HEALTH CARE COST; HEART MUSCLE CONDUCTION DISTURBANCE; HUMAN; HYPOTENSION; INCREASED APPETITE; INSOMNIA; INTERMETHOD COMPARISON; LACTATION; LEUKOPENIA; LIBIDO DISORDER; LIVER TOXICITY; MAJOR DEPRESSION; META ANALYSIS; MUSCLE CRAMP; NAUSEA; NEUROLEPTIC MALIGNANT SYNDROME; ORGASM DISORDER; ORTHOSTATIC HYPOTENSION; PREGNANCY TERMINATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RASH; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SEDATION; SIDE EFFECT; SOMNOLENCE; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; TACHYCARDIA; TARDIVE DYSKINESIA; TREATMENT DURATION; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT; URINE RETENTION; UTERUS BLEEDING; VOMITING; WEIGHT GAIN; XEROSTOMIA;

ANTIDEPRESSIVE AGENTS; ANTIPSYCHOTIC AGENTS; COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS; DEPRESSIVE DISORDER, MAJOR; DRUG THERAPY, COMBINATION; ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY; HUMANS; HYDROCORTISONE; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS; RECEPTORS, GLUCOCORTICOID; RISK ASSESSMENT;

EID: 33744955788     PISSN: 01145916     EISSN: 01145916     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2165/00002018-200629060-00003     Document Type: Review

References (129)

1. American Psychiatric Association Committee on nomenclature and statistics diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4th ed. Text rev. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 2000
2. American Psychiatric Association Committee on nomenclature and statistics diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1980
3. Kendell RE. The classification of depressions a review of contemporary confusion. Br J Psychiatry 1976; 129: 15-28
4. American Psychiatric Association Committee on nomenclature and statistics diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1968
5. Glassman AH, Kantor SJ, Shostak M. Depression, delusions, and drug response. Am J Psychiatry 1975; 132 (7): 716-9
6. Glassman AH, Roose SP. Delusional depression: a distinct clinical entity? Arch Gen Psychiatry 1981; 38: 424-7
7. Kantor SJ, Glassman AH. Delusional depressions natural history and response to treatment. Br J Psychiatry 1977; 131: 351-60
8. Wheeler Vega JA, Mortimer AM, Tyson PJ. Somatic treatment of psychotic depression: review and recommendations for practice. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2000; 20 (5): 504-19
9. Carpenter LL, Price LH. Psychotic depression what is it and how should we treat it? Harv Rev Psychiatry 2000; 8 (1): 40-2
10. Rothschild A, Phillips K. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and delusional depression [letter]. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156: 977-8
11. Smith GN, MacEwan GW, Ancill RJ, et al. Diagnostic confusion in treatment-refractory psychotic patients. J Clin Psychiatry 1992; 53 (6): 197-200
12. Hoch A, MacCurdy JT. The prognosis of involution melancholia. Arch Neurol Psychiatry 1922; 7: 1-17
13. Schatzberg A, Rothschild AJ. Psychotic (delusional): major depression: should it be included as a distinct syndrome in DSM-IV? Am J Psychiatry 1992; 149: 733-45
14. Rothschild AJ. Challenges in the treatment of depression with psychotic features. Biol Psychiatry 2003; 53 (8): 680-90
15. Johnson J, Horwath E, Weissman MM. The validity of major depression with psychotic features based on a community study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991; 48 (12): 1075-81
16. Leyton M, Corin E, Martial J, et al. Psychotic symptoms and vulnerability to recurrent major depression. J Affect Disord 1995; 33 (2): 107-15
17. Robinson DG, Spiker DG. Delusional depression: a one year follow-up. J Affect Disord 1985; 9 (1): 79-83
18. Coryell W, Tsuang MT. Primary unipolar depression and the prognostic importance of delusions. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982; 39 (10): 1181-4
19. Coryell W, Leon A, Winoker G, et al. The importance of psychotic features to long term course in depressive disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1996; 153: 483-9
20. Jager M, Bottlender R, Strauss A, et al. Fifteen-year follow-up of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition depressive disorders: the prognostic significance of psychotic features. Compr Psychiatry 2005 Sep-Oct; 46 (5): 322-7
21. Maj J, Pirozzi R, Di Caprio EL. Major depression with mood-congruent psychotic features: a distinct diagnostic entity or a more severe subtype of depression? Acta Psychiatr Scand 1990; 82: 439-44
22. Coryell W, Endicott J, Keller M. The importance of psychotic features to major depression: course and outcome during a 2-year follow-up. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1987; 75 (1): 78-85
23. Charney DS, Nelson JC. Delusional and nondelusional unipolar depression further evidence for distinct subtypes. Am J Psychiatry 1981; 138 (3): 328-33
24. Chan CH, Janicak PG, Davis JM, et al. Response of psychotic and nonpsychotic depressed patients to tricyclic antidepressants. J Clin Psychiatry 1987; 48:197-200
25. Anton RF. Urinary free cortisol in psychotic depression. Biol Psychiatry 1987; 22: 24-34
26. Belanoff JK, Kalehzan M, Sund B, et al. Cortisol activity and cognitive changes in psychotic major depression. Am J Psychiatry 2001; 158 (10): 1612-6
27. Duval F, Mokrani MC, Crocq MA, et al. Dopaminergic function and the cortisol response to dexamethasone in psychotic depression. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2000; 24 (2): 207-25
28. Nelson JC, Davis JM. DST studies in psychotic depression a meta-analysis. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154 (11): 1497-503
29. Posener JA, DeBattista C, Williams GH, et al. 24-hour monitoring of cortisol and corticotropin secretion in psychotic and nonpsychotic major depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000; 57 (8): 755-60
30. Keller J, Flores B, Gomez RG, et al. Cortisol circadian rhythm alterations in psychotic major depression. Biol Psychiatry. Epub 2006 Feb 1
31. Cubells JF, Price LH, Meyers BS, et al. Genotype-controlled analysis of plasma dopamine beta-hydroxylase activity in psychotic unipolar major depression. Biol Psychiatry 2002; 51 (5): 358-64
32. Devanand DP, Bowers MB, Hoffman FJ, et al. Elevated plasma homovanillic acid in depressed females with melancholia and psychosis. Psychiatry Res 1985; 15 (1): 1-4
33. Mazure CM, Bowers MB, Hoffman F, et al. Plasma catecholamine metabolites in subtypes of major depression. Biol Psychiatry 1987; 22 (12): 1469-72
34. Rothschild AJ, Schatzberg AF, Langlais PJ, et al. Psychotic and nonpsychotic depressions: I. Comparison of plasma catecholamines and cortisol measures. Psychiatry Res 1987; 20 (2): 143-53
35. Meltzer HY, Cho HW, Carroll BJ, et al. Serum dopamine-beta-hydroxylase activity in the affective psychoses and schizophrenia: decreased activity in unipolar psychotically depressed patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1976; 33 (5): 585-91
36. Meyers BS, Alexopoulos GS, Kakuma T, et al. Decreased dopamine beta-hydroxylase activity in unipolar geriatric delusional depression. Biol Psychiatry 1999; 45 (4): 448-52
37. Mod L, Rihmer Z, Magyar I, et al. Serum DBH activity in psychotic vs nonpsychotic unipolar and bipolar depression. Psychiatry Res 1986; 19 (4): 331-3
38. Sapru MK, Rao BS, Channabasavanna SM. Serum dopamine-beta-hydroxylase activity in clinical subtypes of depression. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1989; 80 (5): 474-8
39. Rothschild AJ, Langlais PJ, Schatzberg AF, et al. Dexamethasone increases plasma free dopamine in man. J Psychiatr Res 1984; 18 (3): 217-23
40. Aberg-Wistedt A, Wistedt B, Bertilsson L. Higher CSF levels of HVA and 5-HIAA in delusional compared to nondelusional depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1985; 42 (9): 925-6
41. Basso MR, Bornstein RA. Neuropsychological deficits in psychotic versus nonpsychotic unipolar depression. Neuropsychology 1999; 13 (1): 69-75
42. Fleming SK, Blasey C, Schatzberg AF. Neuropsychological correlates of psychotic features in major depressive disorders a review and meta-analysis. J Psychiatr Res 2004; 38 (1): 27-35
43. Jeste DV, Heaton SC, Paulsen JS, et al. Clinical and neuropsychological comparison of psychotic depression with nonpsychotic depression and schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1996; 153 (4): 490-6
44. Schatzberg AF, Posener JA, DeBattista C, et al. Neuropsychological deficits in psychotic versus nonpsychotic major depression and no mental illness. Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157 (7): 1095-100
45. Simpson S, Baldwin RC, Jackson A, et al. The differentiation of DSM-III-R psychotic depression in later life from nonpsychotic depression comparisons of brain changes measured by multispectral analysis of magnetic resonance brain images, neuropsychological findings, and clinical features. Biol Psychiatry 1999; 45 (2): 193-204
46. Kim DK, Kim BL, Sohn SE, et al. Candidate neuroanatomic substrates of psychosis in old-age depression. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1999; 23: 793-807
47. Duman RS. Depression a case of neuronal life and death? Biol Psychiatry 2004; 56 (3): 140-5
48. American Psychiatric Association. Practice guideline for the treatment of major depressive disorder (revision). Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157 Suppl. 4: 1-45
49. Sachs GS, Printz DJ, Kahn DA, et al. The expert consensus guideline series medication treatment of bipolar disorder 2000. Postgrad Med 2000; Spec No: 1-104
50. Trivedi MH, Rush AJ, Crismon ML, et al. Clinical results for patients with major depressive disorder in the Texas Medication Algorithm Project. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2004; 61 (7): 669-80
51. DeBattista C, Rothschild A, Schatzberg A. A dynamic algorithm for treatment of psychotic major depression. Psychiatr Ann 2002; 32 (11): 681-91
52. Pande AC, Grunhaus LJ, Haskett RF, et al. Electroconvulsive therapy in delusional and non-delusional depressive disorder. J Affect Disord 1990; 19 (3): 215-9
53. Petrides G, Fink M, Husain MM, et al. ECT remission rates in psychotic versus nonpsychotic depressed patients: a report from CORE. J ECT 2001; 17 (4): 244-53
54. Kho KH, van Vreeswijk MF, Simpson S, et al. A meta-analysis of electroconvulsive therapy efficacy in depression. J ECT 2003; 19 (3): 139-47
55. Kroessler D. Relative efficacy rates for therapies of delusional depression. Convuls Ther 1985; 1 (3): 173-82
56. Parker G, Roy K, Hadzi-Pavlovic D, et al. Psychotic (delusional): depression a meta-analysis of physical treatments. J Affect Disord 1992; 24: 17-24
57. Flint AJ, Rifat SL. The treatment of psychotic depression in later life a comparison of pharmacotherapy and ECT. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1998; 13 (1): 23-8
58. Thompson JW, Weiner RD, Myers CP. Use of ECT in the United States in 1975, 1980, and 1986. Am J Psychiatry 1994; 151 (11): 1657-61
59. Prudic J, Peyser S, Sackeim HA. Subjective memory complaints a review of patient self-assessment of memory after electroconvulsive therapy. J ECT 2000; 16 (2): 121-32
60. Olfson M, Marcus S, Sackeim HA, et al. Use of ECT for the inpatient treatment of recurrent major depression. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155 (1): 22-9
61. Sackeim HA, Haskett RF, Mulsant BH, et al. Continuation pharmacotherapy in the prevention of relapse following electroconvulsive therapy a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2001; 285 (10): 1299-307
62. Spiker DG, Stein J, Rich CL. Delusional depression and electroconvulsive therapy one year later. Convuls Ther 1985; 1 (3): 167-72
63. Spiker DG, Cofsky Weiss J, Dealy RS, et al. The pharmacological treatment of delusional depression. Am J Psychiatry 1985; 142: 430-6
64. Anton RF, Burch EA. Amoxapine versus amitriptyline combined with perphenazine in the treatment of psychotic depression. Am J Psychiatry 1990; 147 (9): 1203-8
65. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 3rd rev. ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1987
66. Mulsant BH, Sweet RA, Rosen J, et al. A double-blind randomized comparison of nortriptyline plus perphenazine versus nortriptyline plus placebo in the treatment of psychotic depression in late life. J Clin Psychiatry 2001; 62 (8): 597-604
67. National Institute of Health Crisp Database. Acute pharmacotherapy of psychotic depression [online]. Available from URL: http://crisp.cit.nih.gov/ crisp/crisp_query.generate_screen [Accessed 2006 May 10]
68. Spina E, Scordo MG, D'Arrigo C. Metabolic drug interactions with new psychotropic agents. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2003; 17 (5): 517-38
69. Rothschild A, Duval SE. How long should patients with psychotic depression stay on the antipsychotic medication? J Clin Psychiatry 2003; 64: 390-6
70. Wolfersdorf M, Barg T, Konig F, et al. Paroxetine as antidepressant in combined antidepressant-neuroleptic therapy in delusional depression observation of clinical use. Pharmacopsychiatry 1995; 28 (2): 56-60
71. Rothschild AJ, Samson JA, Bessette MP, et al. Efficacy of the combination of fluoxetine and perphenazine in the treatment of psychotic depression. J Clin Psychiatry 1993; 54 (9): 338-42
72. Konig F, von Hippel C, Petersdorff T, et al. First experiences in combination therapy using olanzapine with SSRIs (citalopram, paroxetine): in delusional depression. Neuropsychobiology 2001; 43 (3): 170-4
73. Matthews JD, Bottonari KA, Polania LM, et al. An open study of olanzapine and fluoxetine for psychotic major depressive disorder interim analyses. J Clin Psychiatry 2002; 63 (12): 1164-70
74. Rothschild AJ, Bates KS, Boehringer KL, et al. Olanzapine response in psychotic depression. J Clin Psychiatry 1999; 60 (2): 116-8
75. Rothschild AJ, Williamson DJ, Tohen MF, et al. A double-blind, randomized study of olanzapine and olanzapine/fluoxetine combination for major depression with psychotic features. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2004; 24 (4): 365-73
76. Matthews JD, Petersen TJ, Dording CM, et al. Survey of clinician prescribing practices in the treatment of psychotic major depression [New Research Abstract #261]. American Psychiatric Association 156th Annual Meeting; 2003 May 17-22, San Francisco, CA
77. American Diabetes Association, American Psychiatric Association, American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, et al. Consensus development conference on antipsychotic drugs and obesity and diabetes. J Clin Psychiatry 2004 Feb; 65 (2): 267-72
78. Chan CH, Janicak PG, Davis JM, et al. Response of psychotic and nonpsychotic depressed patients to tricyclic antidepressants. J Clin Psychiatry 1987; 48: 197-200
79. Bruijn JA, Moleman P, Mulder PG, et al. Treatment of mood-congruent psychotic depression with imipramine. J Affect Disord 2001; 66 (2-3): 165-74
80. Davidson JR, McLeod MN, Kurland AA, et al. Antidepressant drug therapy in psychotic depression. Br J Psychiatry 1977; 131: 493-6
81. Glassman AH, Perel JM, Shostak M, et al. Clinical implications of imipramine plasma levels for depressive illness. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1977; 34 (2): 197-204
82. Spiker DG, Perel JM, Hanin I, et al. J. The pharmacological treatment of delusional depression Part II. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1986; 6: 339-42
83. Gatti F, Bellini L, Gasperini M, et al. Fluvoxamine alone in the treatment of delusional depression. Am J Psychiatry 1996; 153: 414-6
84. Zanardi R, Franchini L, Gasperini M, et al. Double-blind controlled trial of sertraline versus paroxetine in the treatment of delusional depression. Am J Psychiatry 1996; 153: 1631-3
85. Zanardi R, Franchini L, Gasperini M, et al. Long-term treatment of psychotic (delusional): depression with fluvoxamine an open pilot study. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1997; 12 (4): 195-7
86. Zanardi R, Franchini L, Gasperini M, et al. Faster onset of action of fluvoxamine in combination with pindolol in the treatment of delusional depression A controlled study. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1998; 18: 441-6
87. Zanardi R, Franchini L, Serretti A, et al. Venlafaxine versus fluvoxamine in the treatment of delusional depression a pilot double-blind controlled study. J Clin Psychiatry 2000; 61 (1): 26-9
88. Sacchetti E, Conte G, Guaneri L, et al. Effectiveness of fluvoxamine and paroxetine in major depression with psychotic features. Hum Psychopharmacol 1997; 12: 277-8
89. Entsuah AR, Huang H, Thase ME. Response and remission rates in different subpopulations with major depressive disorder administered venlafaxine, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, or placebo. J Clin Psychiatry 2001; 62 (11): 869-77
90. Nelson JC, Mazure CM. Lithium augmentation in psychotic depression refractory to combined drug treatment. Am J Psychiatry 1986; 143: 363-6
91. Ebert D. Lithium-TCA combination treatment of psychotic depression comparison with TCA-neuroleptic treatment. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1997; 17 (2): 129-30
92. Stahl SM. Antidepressant treatment of psychotic major depression potential role of the σ receptor. CNS Spectrums 2005; 10 (4): 319-23
93. Simpson GM, El Sheshai A, Rady A, et al. Sertraline as monotherapy in the treatment of psychotic and nonpsychotic depression. J Clin Psychiatry 2003; 64 (8): 959-65
94. Grunze H, Marcuse A, Scharer LO, et al. Nefazodone in psychotic unipolar and bipolar depression a retrospective chart analysis and open prospective study on its efficacy and safety versus combined treatment with amitriptyline and haloperidol. Neuropsychobiology 2002; 46 Suppl. 1: 31-5
95. World Health Organization. International Statistical Classification of diseases and Related Health Problems, 1989 Revision. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1992
96. Marek GJ, Carpenter LL, McDougle CJ, et al. Synergistic action of 5-HT2A antagonists and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in neuropsychiatric disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology 2003; 28 (2): 402-12
97. Dassa D, Kaladjian A, Azorin JM, et al. Clozapine in the treatment of psychotic refractory depression. Br J Psychiatry 1993; 163: 822-4
98. Debattista C, Solvason HB, Belanoff J, et al. Treatment of psychotic depression. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154 (11): 1625-6
99. Jacobsen FM. Risperidone in the treatment of affective illness and obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1995; 56 (9): 423-9
100. Malhi GS, Checkley SA. Olanzapine in the treatment of psychotic depression. Br J Psychiatry 1999; 174: 460
101. Nelson EB, Rielage E, Welge JA, et al. An open trial of olanzapine in the treatment of patients with psychotic depression. Ann Clin Psychiatry 2001; 13 (3): 147-51
102. Parsa MA, Ramirez LF, Loula EC, et al. Effect of clozapine on psychotic depression and parkinsonism. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1991; 11 (5): 330-1
103. Ranjan R, Meltzer HY. Acute and long-term effectiveness of clozapine in treatment-resistant psychotic depression. Biol Psychiatry 1996; 40 (4): 253-8
104. Hillert A, Maier W, Wetzel H, et al. Risperidone in the treatment of disorders with a combined psychotic and depressive syndrome: a functional approach. Pharmacopsychiatry 1992; 25 (5): 213-7
105. Muller-Siecheneder F, Muller MJ, Hillert A, et al. Risperidone versus haloperidol and amitriptyline in the treatment of patients with a combined psychotic and depressive syndrome. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1998; 18 (2): 111-20
106. Amsterdam J, Mosley PD, Rosenzweig M. Assessment of adrenocortical activity in refractory depression. Steroid suppression with ketoconazole. In: Nolan W, Zohar J, Roose S, Amsterdam J, editors. Refractory depression. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, 1994: 199-210
107. Anand A, Malison R, McDougle CJ, et al. Antiglucocorticoid treatment of refractory depression with ketoconazole a case report. Biol Psychiatry 1995; 37 (5): 338-40
108. Ghadirian AM, Engelsmann F, Dhar V, et al. The psychotropic effects of inhibitors of steroid biosynthesis in depressed patients refractory to treatment. Biol Psychiatry 1995; 37 (6): 369-75
109. Ravaris CL, Sateia MJ, Beroza KW, et al. Effect of ketoconazole on a hypophysectomized, hypercortisolemic, psychotically depressed woman. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988; 45: 966-7
110. Thakore JH, Dinan TG. Cortisol synthesis inhibition a new treatment strategy for the clinical and endocrine manifestations of depression. Biol Psychiatry 1995; 37 (6): 364-8
111. Wolkowitz OM, Reus VI, Manfredi F, et al. Ketoconazole administration in hypercortisolemic depression. Am J Psychiatry 1993; 150 (5): 810-2
112. Malison RT, Anand A, Pelton GH, et al. Limited efficacy of ketoconazole in treatment-refractory major depression. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1999; 19 (5): 466-70
113. Bertagna X, Escourolle H, Pinquier JL, et al. Administration of RU 486 for 8 days in normal volunteers antiglucocorticoid effect with no evidence of peripheral cortisol deprivation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994; 78 (2): 375-80
114. Gaillard RC, Riondel A, Muller AF, et al. RU 486 a steroid with antiglucocorticosteroid activity that only disinhibits the human pituitary-adrenal system at a specific time of day. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1984; 81 (12): 3879-82
115. Chu JW, Matthias DF, Belanoff J, et al. Successful long-term treatment of refractory Cushing's disease with high-dose mifepristone (RU 486). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86 (8): 3568-73
116. Nieman LK, Chrousos GP, Kellner C, et al. Successful treatment of Cushing's syndrome with the glucocorticoid antagonist RU 486. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985; 61 (3): 536-40
117. Van der Lely A-J, Foeken K, van der Mast RC, et al. Rapid reversal of acute psychosis in the Cushing syndrome with the cortisol-receptor antagonist mifepristone (RU 486). Ann Intern Med 1991; 114: 143-4
118. Murphy BE, Filipini D, Ghadirian AM. Possible use of glucocorticoid receptor antagonists in the treatment of major depression preliminary results using RU 486. J Psychiatry Neurosci 1993; 18 (5): 209-13
119. Belanoff JK, Flores BH, Kalezhan M, et al. Rapid reversal of psychotic depression using mifepristone. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2001; 21 (5): 516-21
120. Rubin RT, Carroll BJ. Mifepristone (Ru486): in the treatment of psychotic depression re-evaluation of published data. Neuropsychopharmacology 2004; 29 Suppl. 1: S203-4
121. Belanoff JK, Rothschild AJ, Cassidy F, et al. An open label trial of C-1073 (mifepristone): for psychotic major depression. Biol Psychiatry 2002; 52 (5): 386-92
122. Simpson GM, Sheshai AE, Loza N, et al. An 8-week open-label trial of a 6-day course of mifepristone for the treatment of psychotic depression. J Clin Psychiatry 2005; 66 (5): 598-602
123. Flores BH, Kenna H, Keller J, et al. Clinical and biological effects of mifepristone treatment for psychotic depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 2006; 31: 628-36
124. Aronson TA, Shukla S, Gujavarty K, et al. Relapse in delusional depression a retrospective study of the course of treatment. Compr Psychiatry 1988; 29 (1): 12-21
125. Flint AJ, Rifat SL. Two-year outcome of psychotic depression in late life. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155 (2): 178-83
126. Meyers BS, Klimstra SA, Gabriele M, et al. Continuation treatment of delusional depression in older adults. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2001; 9 (4): 415-22
127. Gagne Jr GG, Furman MJ, Carpenter LL, et al. Efficacy of continuation ECT and antidepressant drugs compared to long-term antidepressants alone in depressed patients. Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157 (12): 1960-5
128. Russell JC, Rasmussen KG, O'Connor MK, et al. Long-term maintenance ECT a retrospective review of efficacy and cognitive outcome. J ECT 2003; 19 (1): 4-9
129. McDonald WM, Phillips VL, Figiel GS, et al. Cost-effective maintenance treatment of resistant geriatric depression. Psychiatr Ann 1998; 28 (1): 47-52