The UN and corporate environmental responsibility: Between international regulation and partnerships

Review of European Community and International Environmental Law

Volumn 15, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 93-109

  Morgera, Elisa ^a,b,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b EUROPEAN UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE   (Italy)

^c UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; HUMAN RIGHTS; UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAM;

EID: 33646802244     PISSN: 09628797     EISSN: 14679388     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9388.2006.00505.x     Document Type: Article

References (279)

1. Throughout this article, the term 'transnational corporations' will be used to refer to commercial entities that are owned or operate in more than one country, also elsewhere referred to as 'multinationals', 'multinational corporations' or 'multinational enterprises'.
2. K.P. Sauvant and V. Aranda, 'The International Legal Framework for Transnational Corporations', in A.A. Fatouros (ed.), Transnational Corporations: The International Legal Framework (Routledge, 1994), 83, at 88.
3. S.K.B. Asante, 'The Concept of Good Corporate Citizen in International Business', in A.A. Fatouros, ibid., at 169.
4. D. Shelton, 'The Utility and Limits of Codes of Conduct for the Protection of the Environment', in A. Kiss et al. (eds), Economic Globalization and Compliance with International Environmental Agreements (Kluwer Law International, 2003), 211, at 211.
5. For an overview of perceived unsustainable practices of TNCs, see D. Santillo and P. Johnston, 'Ethical standards and principles of sustainability', in M.K. Addo (ed.), Human Rights Standards and the Responsibility of Transnational Corporations (Kluwer Law International, 1999), 351.
6. World Resources Institute, World Resources 2002-2004: Decisions for the Earth: Balance, Voice, and Power (World Resources Institute, 2003), at 164.
7. Ibid., at 94.
8. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), Environment, UNCTAD Series on International Investment Agreements (UNCTAD/ITE/IIT/23, 2001), at 7.
9. Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Ecuador (OEA/ser. L/V/II.96, doc.10 rev. 1, 24 April 1997).
10. See also J. Kimerling, 'Disregarding Environmental Law: Petroleum Development in Protected Natural Areas and Indigenous Homelands in the Ecuadorian Amazon', 14:4 Hastings International and Comparative Law Review (1991), 849
11. S. Holwick,'Transnational Corporate Behaviour and its Disparate and Unjust Effects on the Indigenous Cultures and the Environment of Developing Nations: Jota v. Texaco, a Case Study', 11:1 Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy (2000), 183.
12. G. Banks and C. Ballard (eds), The Ok Tedi Settlement: Issues, Outcomes and Implications (National Centre for Development Studies and Resource Management, 1997).
13. Throughout this article, the term 'corporate social responsibility' (CSR) will be used to refer to the broad idea of including social, economic, environmental and human rights concerns into the responsible conduct of business; whereas, the term 'corporate environmental responsibility' refers to the responsible conduct of business with exclusive reference to environmental concerns.
14. P. Muchlinski, 'Attempts to Extend the Accountability of Transnational Corporations: The Role of UNCTAD', in M.T. Kamminga and S. Zia-Zarifi (eds), Liability for Multinational Corporations under International Law (Kluwer Law International, 2000), 97, at 99
15. J.M. Kline, 'Business Codes of Conduct in a Global Political Economy', in O.F. Williams (ed.), Global Codes of Conduct: An Idea Whose Time Has Come (University of Notre Dame Press, 2000), 39, at 43.
16. This was also due to the oil crisis in the 1970s; see K.P. Sauvant and V. Aranda, n. 2 above, at 89.
17. Ibid., at 90.
18. ECOSOC Resolution No 1721 (28 July 1972) (adopted unanimously).
19. A. Beghè Loreti, 'L'elaborazione di un codice di condotta delle società multinazionali ad opera delle Nazioni Unite', 2:2 II diritto comunitario e degli scambi internazionali (1979), 262, at 267
20. R.J. Waldmann, Regulating International Business through Codes of Conduct (American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, 1980), at 70.
21. 'Effects of Transnational Corporations on Development and International Relations', in Report of the Eminent Persons' Group (UN Doc. E/5500/ Rev.1/ST/ESA/6, 1974), at 55.
22. ECOSOC Resolution No 1913 (5 December 1974).
23. M. Hansen, 'Environmental Regulation of Transnational Corporations', in P. Utting (ed.), The Greening of Business in Developing Countries (Zed Books and UNRISD, 2002), 158, at 161
24. S.J. Rubin, 'Transnational Corporations and International Codes of Conduct: A Study of the Relationship between International Legal Cooperation and Economic Development', 10:4 American University Journal of International Law and Policy (1994-1995), 1275, at 1282
25. S. Coonrod, 'The United Nations Code of Conduct for Transnational Corporations', 18:2 Harvard International Law Journal (1977), 273, at 273.
26. Proposed Text of the Draft Code of Conduct on Transnational Corporations (UN Doc. E/1990/94, 12 June 1990).
27. See A. Beghè Loreti, n. 16 above, at 269
28. M. Hansen and V. Aranda, 'An Emerging International Framework for Transnational Corporations', 14:4 Fordham International Law Journal (1990-1991), 881, at 886
29. S. Coonrod, n. 19 above, at 274.
30. See S.J. Rubin, n. 19 above, at 1284.
31. T. Treves, 'Nazioni Unite e imprese multinazionali', 14:4 Rivista di diritto internazionale privato e processuale (1978), 900.
32. F. Francioni, 'International Codes of Conduct for Multinational Enterprises: An Alternative Approach', 3 The Italian Yearbook of International Law (1977), 143, at 161.
33. ECOSOC Resolution No 60 (24 July 1980). On this point, also see P. Muchlinski, n. 12 above, at 100.
34. See K.P. Sauvant and V. Aranda, n. 2 above, at 105.
35. W. Sprote, 'Negotiations on a United Nations Code of Conduct on Transnational Corporations', 33 German Yearbook of International Law (1990), 331, at 331.
36. See P. Muchlinski, n. 12 above, at 100.
37. See A. Beghè Loreti, n. 16 above, at 265
38. R.J. Waldmann, ibid., at 84.
39. See S. Coonrod, n. 19 above, at 296
40. A. Beghè Loreti, n. 16 above, at 536
41. F. Nelli Feroci, 'Società multinazionali: Verso un codice di condotta', 33:3 La comunità internazionale (1978), 325.
42. A.A. Fatouros, 'Looking for an International Legal Framework for Transnational Corporations', in A.A. Fatouros, n. 2 above, 1, at 9
43. K.P. Sauvant and V. Aranda, ibid., at 102.
44. See M. Hansen and V. Aranda, n. 21 above, at 887
45. W. Sprote, n. 27 above, at 341.
46. See W. Sprote, ibid., at 339.
47. See P. Muchlinski, n. 12 above, at 99 and 110.
48. See A.A. Fatouros, n. 31 above, at 17.
49. See M. Hansen, n. 19 above, at 161.
50. Declaration on the Establishment of a New International Economic Order (UNGA Resolution No 3201, 6 September 1974) and Programme of Action for the Establishment of a New International Economic Order (UNGA Resolution No 3202, 6 September 1974).
51. See M. Hansen and V. Aranda, n. 21 above, at 885
52. P. Muchlinski, n. 12 above, at 99
53. M. Hansen, n. 19 above, at 160.
54. See P. Muchlinski, ibid., at 99.
55. S.J. Rubin, 'Reflections Concerning the United Nations Commission on Transnational Corporations', 70:1 American Journal of International Law (1976), 73, at 79.
56. For an overview of the debate on expropriation within the negotiations, see P. Robinson, The Question of a Reference to International Obligations in the United Nations Code of Conduct on Transnational Corporations (UN Doc. ST/CTC/SER.A/1, 1986)
57. D. Vagts, The Question of a Reference to International Obligations in the United Nations Code of Conduct on Transnational Corporations: A Different View (UN Doc. ST/CTC/SER.A/2, 1986).
58. See S.J. Rubin, n. 19 above, at 1276.
59. P. Utting, UN-Business Partnerships: Whose Agenda Counts?, paper presented at seminar on Partnerships for Development or Privatization of the Multilateral System (North-South Coalition, Oslo, Norway, 8 December 2000), at 2
60. see also P. Muchlinski, n. 12 above, at 103.
61. See F. Francioni, n. 24 above, at 160
62. and S.K.B. Asante, n. 3 above, at 173, pointing specifically at the treatment part of the code.
63. F. Calder and M. Culverwell, Following up the WSSD Commitments on Corporate Responsibility and Accountability (Royal Institute of International Affairs, 30 January 2004), at 15.
64. D. Weissbrodt, 'The Beginning of a Sessional Working Group on Transnational Corporations within the UN Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities', in M.T. Kamminga and S. Zia-Zarifi, n. 12 above, 119, at 127.
65. S. Prakash Seti, 'Gaps in Research, Formulation, Implementation and Effectiveness, Measurement of International Codes of Conduct', in O.F. Williams, n. 12 above, 117, at 120
66. contra see S.K.B. Asante, n. 3 above, at 190, where he asserts the need for full participation of representatives of the business community in the deliberations of the Commission.
67. International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), Annual Report 1992 (ICC, 1992), at 24
68. and see P. Muchlinski, n. 12 above, at 115.
69. See P. Muchlinski, ibid., at 105.
70. See Ludger Odenthal's contribution in United Nations Research Institute for Social Development, Corporate Social Responsibility and Development: Towards a New Agenda: Summaries of Presentations made at the UNRISD Conference (Geneva, November 2003), at 92-94, available at
71. For a discussion on policy options to increase TNCs' contributions to development, see UNCTAD, World Investment Report 2003: FDI Policies for Development: National and International Perspectives (United Nations, 2003).
72. Sao Paulo Consensus, adopted at the 269th UNCTAD plenary meeting on 18 June 2004 (TD/410, 25 July 2004), at paras 45, 49 and 89, available at .
73. See S.J. Rubin, n. 19 above, at 1289.
74. Norms on the Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations and Other Business Enterprises with regards to Human Rights (UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/ 2003/12/Rev.2, 26 August 2003).
75. W. Crane, 'Corporations Swallowing Nations: The OECD and the Multilateral Agreement on Investment', 9:4 Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy (1998), 429.
76. See S.K.B. Asante, n. 3 above, at 172-173.
77. See P. Muchlinski, n. 12 above, at 115.
78. See A.A. Fatouros, n. 31 above, at 12.
79. See S.J. Rubin, n. 19 above, at 1277.
80. See P. Muchlinski, n. 12 above, at 104.
81. See M. Hansen, n. 19 above, at 164.
82. For further reading on this point, see M. Bettati and P.M. Dupuy (eds), Les O.N.G. et le droit international (Economica, 1986)
83. V. Haufler, A Public Role for the Private Sector (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2001)
84. See P. Muchlinski, n. 12 above, at 115.
85. See Agenda 21 (UN Doc. A/CONF.151/26, 1992), Chapter 30.
86. Report of the Secretary-General on Enhanced Cooperation between the United Nations and all Relevant Partners, in particular the Private Sector (UN Doc.A/58/227, 18 August 2003). For a detailed analysis of the UN-private sector partnerships, see A. Zammit, Development at Risk: Rethinking UN-Business Partnerships (UNRISD, 2003).
87. See the most notable, although controversial outcome of WSSD in terms of 'Type II Partnerships', namely opportunities for the private sector to engage actively in the process through multi-stakeholder involvement, as an alternative to Type I (formal) commitments (available at ), as highlighted by F. Calder and M. Culverwell, n. 44 above, at 18 and 47-48.
88. See P. Utting, n. 42 above, at 3.
89. Ibid., at 4.
90. Ibid., at 3.
91. Ibid., at 6-7.
92. Ibid., at 5.
93. K. Bruno and J. Karliner, 'The UN's Global Compact, Corporate Accountability and the Johannesburg Earth Summit', 45:3 Development (2002), 33, at 34.
94. B. King, 'The UN Global Compact: Responsibility for Human Rights, Labour Relations, and the Environment in Developing Nations', 34:3 Cornell International Law Journal (2001), 481, at 483.
95. See Report of the Secretary-General, n. 63 above.
96. See K. Bruno and J. Karliner, n. 70 above, at 34.
97. United Nations Guide to the Global Compact: A Practical Understanding of the Vision and the Nine Principles, at 4, available at .
98. For an overview of opinions on the Global Compact, see M. Shaughnessy, 'The United Nations Global Compact and the Continuing Debate about the Effectiveness of Corporate Voluntary Codes of Conduct', 12 Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy Yearbook (2000), 156
99. W.H. Meyer and S. Boyka, 'Human Rights, the UN Global Compact, and Global Governance', 34:3 Cornell International Law Journal (2001), 501.
100. K. Bruno and J. Karliner, n. 70 above, at 34.
101. Ibid.
102. 'Secretary-General Proposes Global Compact on Human Rights, Labour, Environment, in Address to World Economic Forum in Davos', UN Press Release SG/SM/6881 (1 February 1999), available at .
103. See United Nations Guide to the Global Compact, n. 74 above, at 4.
104. The principles read as follows: Businesses should support and respect the protection of internationally proclaimed human rights within their sphere of influence, and make sure that they are not complicit in human rights abuses (principles 1-2); businesses should uphold the freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining, the elimination of all forms of forced and compulsory labour, the effective abolition of child labour, and eliminate discrimination in respect of employment and occupation (principles 3-6); businesses should support a precautionary approach to environmental challenges, undertake initiatives to promote greater environmental responsibility, and encourage the development and diffusion of environmentally friendly technologies (principles 7-9); and businesses should work against all forms of corruption, including extortion and bribery (principle 10). See United Nations Guide to the Global Compact, n. 74 above.
105. See F. Calder and M. Culverwell, n. 44 above, at 37.
106. The website of the Global Compact is available at .
107. See United Nations Guide to the Global Compact, n. 74 above, at 4.
108. Ibid., at 5.
109. See D. Shelton, n. 4 above, at 216.
110. See United Nations Guide to the Global Compact, n. 74 above, at 9.
111. See W.H. Meyer and S. Boyka, n. 75 above, at 504.
112. See United Nations Guide to the Global Compact, n. 74 above, at 4.
113. This is highlighted by D. Shelton, n. 4 above, at 216.
114. See United Nations Guide to the Global Compact, n. 74 above, at 7.
115. Ibid., at 4.
116. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UNGA Resolution No 217A(III), 10 December 1948).
117. Eighty-Sixth Session of the General Conference of the International Labour Organization (Geneva, 19 June 1998).
118. (Merida, Mexico, 9 December 2003). See United Nations Guide to the Global Compact, n. 74 above, at 7.
119. P. Utting, 'The Global Compact: Why All the Fuss?', UN Chronicle (UN, 2003), available at .
120. See D. Shelton, n. 4 above, at 218.
121. See B. King, n. 71 above, at 485.
122. This is defined by W.H. Meyer and S. Boyka, n. 75 above, at 502.
123. Ibid., at 510.
124. See M. Shaughnessy, n. 75 above, at 164
125. L.A. Mowery, 'Earth Rights, Human Rights: Can International Environmental Human Rights Affect Corporate Accountability?', 13:2 Fordham Environmental Law Journal (2002), 343, at 363.
126. See P. Utting, n. 95 above, at 2.
127. See, among others, F. Calder and M. Culverwell, n. 44 above, at 38.
128. See K. Bruno and J. Karliner, n. 70 above, at 36.
129. See F. Calder and M. Culverwell, n. 44 above, at 38.
130. O. Hoedeman, 'Rio + 10 and the Greenwash of Corporate Globalization', 45:3 Development (2002), 39, at 40.
131. Ibid., at 41
132. K. Bruno and J. Karliner, n. 70 above, at 34
133. P. Utting, n. 42 above, at 8
134. Judith Richter's contribution to Summaries of Presentations made at the UNRISD Conference, n. 49 above, at 77-82. An international legally binding instrument on corporate accountability was indeed called for by a coalition of NGOs at WSSD
135. see Friends of the Earth, Towards Binding Corporate Accountability, position paper for the WSSD (Friends of the Earth, January 2002).
136. International Chamber of Commerce and International Organization of Employers, Joint views of the IOE and ICC on the Draft Norms on the Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations and other Business Enterprises with regards to Human Rights (ICC, 22 July 2003), available at .
137. See P. Utting, n. 42 above, at 14.
138. Ibid.
139. and see M. Shaughnessy, n. 75 above, at 181.
140. See L.A. Mowery, n. 100 above, at 360.
141. More information is available at .
142. See United Nations Guide to the Global Compact, n. 74 above, at 9.
143. See F. Calder and M. Culverwell, n. 44 above, at 37.
144. Amnesty International, The UN Human Rights Norms for Business: Towards Legal Accountability (Amnesty International Publications, 2004), at 14.
145. CSR Europe, Q&A Session: United Nations Norms on the Responsibility of Transnational Companies (CSR Europe, November 2003), at 6, available at .
146. United Nations Global Compact Office, The Global Compact New Phase (United Nations Global Compact Office, 6 September 2005), available at .
147. Ibid., Annex.
148. On the relationship between Sub-Commission and Commission in relation to the Norms, see Simon Walker's contribution in Summaries of Presentations made at the UNRISD Conference, n. 49 above, at 83-87.
149. The Relationship between the Enjoyment of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the Right to Development, and the Working Methods and Activities of Transnational Corporations (Sub-Commission's Resolution No 11, E/CN.4/SUB.2/RES/1997/11, 22 August 1997).
150. The Relationship between the Enjoyment of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the Right to Development, and the Working Methods and Activities of Transnational Corporations (Sub-Commission's Resolution No 8, E/CN.4/SUB.2/RES/1998/8, 20 August 1998). See also D. Weissbrodt, n. 45 above.
151. e séance (E/CN.4/Sub.2/2001/ SR.25, 31 August 2001) (available only in French).
152. For a full account of the drafting of the Norms, see D. Weissbrodt and M. Kruger, 'Norms on the Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations and Other Business Enterprises with regard to Human Rights', 97:4 American Journal of International Law (2003), 901, at 904. Professor Weissbrodt is one of the experts on the working group on TNCs.
153. See Norms on the Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations, n. 52 above.
154. See S. Walker, n. 118 above, at 85.
155. See The Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations and Related Business Enterprises with regard to Human Rights (Commission's Decision 2004/116, E/CN.4/DEC/2004/116, 20 April 2004), para. C.
156. See D. Weissbrodt and M. Kruger, n. 124 above, at 912. For the list of source materials of the norms see Proposed Draft Human Rights Code of Conduct for Companies with Source Materials (UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/2000/ WC.2/WP.1/Add.1, 25 May 2000).
157. See 'The relationship between the enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights and the right to development, and the working methods and activities of transnational corporations' (Sub-Commission's Resolution No 8, E/CN.4/SUB.2/RES/2002/8, 14 August 2002); see also C.F. Hillemanns, n. 127 above, at 1069
158. and D. Weissbrodt and M. Kruger, n. 124 above, at 905.
159. See C.F. Hillemanns, n. 126 above, at 1065.
160. See D. Weissbrodt and M. Kruger, n. 122 above, at 907.
161. See CSR Europe, n. 115 above, at 8 and 5.
162. D. Weissbrodt and M. Kruger, n. 122 above, at 912
163. C.F. Hillemanns, n. 126 above, at 1070.
164. See Amnesty International, n. 114 above, at 13 and 15.
165. See D. Weissbrodt and M. Kruger, n. 122 above, at 903
166. A. King, The United Nations Human Rights Norms for Business and the UN Global Compact (King Zollinger & Co., February 2004), available at .
167. See Amnesty International, n. 114 above, at 6.
168. See C.F. Hillemanns, n. 126 above, at 1080.
169. See D. Weissbrodt and M. Kruger, n. 122 above, at 913.
170. See A. King, n. 134 above, at 2.
171. See D. Weissbrodt and M. Kruger, n. 122 above, at 905.
172. Ibid., at 906.
173. See 'General Obligations', in Norms of the Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations, n. 52 above, at para. A.
174. See also D. Weissbrodt and M. Kruger, ibid., at 911.
175. Ibid., at 912.
176. Ibid., at 915
177. and see Amnesty International, n. 114 above, at 7.
178. See Amnesty International, ibid., at 8.
179. See 'Definitions', in Norms of the Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations, n. 52 above, Section I, para. 21
180. on this point, also see C.F. Hillemanns, n. 126 above, at 1069.
181. See D. Weissbrodt and M. Kruger, n. 122 above, at 910.
182. Ibid., at 909-911.
183. D. Weissbrodt, Principles relating to the Human Rights Conduct of Companies (UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/2000/WG.2/WP.1, 25 May 2000), at para. 12.
184. From author's interview with Simon Walker (Geneva, 19 July 2004).
185. See D. Weissbrodt and M. Kruger, n. 122 above, at 916.
186. See Norms on the Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations, n. 52 above, Section H, para. 18
187. and see C.F. Hillemanns, n. 126 above, at 1078.
188. See D. Weissbrodt and M. Kruger, n. 122 above, at 913.
189. See CSR Europe, n. 115 above, at 11.
190. Of the same opinion, see D. Vagts, 'The UN Norms for Transnational Corporations', 16:4 Leiden Journal of International Law (2003), 795-802.
191. See W. Sprote, n. 27 above, at 344.
192. See D. Weissbrodt and M. Kruger, n. 122 above, at 917.
193. See C.F. Hillemanns, n. 126 above, at 1070.
194. See F. Calder and M. Culverwell, n. 44 above, at 41
195. CSR Europe, n. 115 above, at 10.
196. See D. Weissbrodt and M. Kruger, n. 122 above, at 919.
197. See ICC and IOE, n. 107 above.
198. See the comments by P. Utting, n. 95 above.
199. See Amnesty International, n. 114 above, at 13 and 15.
200. Ibid., at 14 and 16
201. and see CSR Europe, n. 115 above, at 15.
202. OECD, Roundtable on Corporate Responsibility: Encouraging the Positive Contribution of Business to Environment through the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises. Background Report (Paris, 16 June 2004), at 7, available at .
203. E. Morgera, 'An Environmental Outlook on the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises: Comparative Advantages and Legitimacy in relation to Other International Initiatives', in Georgetown
204. See submissions available at .
205. See also Report of the United Nations High Commissioner on Human Rights on the Responsibility of Transnational Corporations and Related Business Enterprises with regard to Human Rights (UN Doc. E/CN.4/2005/91, 15 February 2005), para. 20 (hereinafter 'OHCHR Report').
206. See D. Weissbrodt and M. Kruger, n. 122 above, at 907.
207. Ibid., at 914.
208. See also M.C. Cordonier Segger, 'Sustainability and Corporate Accountability Regimes: Implementing the Johannesburg Summit Agenda', 12:1 RECIEL (2003), 295, that advocates for making the Norms binding.
209. As anticipated by F. Calder and M. Culverwell, n. 44 above, at 41.
210. Most recently in F.Z. Ouhachi-Vesely, Adverse Effects of the Illicit Movement and Dumping of Toxic and Dangerous Products and Wastes on the Enjoyment of Human Rights (UN Doc. E/CN.4/2004/46/Add. 2, 19 December 2003), at para. 118.
211. See CSR Europe, n. 115 above, at 3.
212. Ibid., at 10.
213. See C.F. Hillemanns, n. 126 above, at 1080.
214. See S. Walker's contribution, n. 118 above, at 105.
215. See OHCHR Report, n. 165 above, para. 22.
216. See M. Hansen, n. 19 above, at 160.
217. See Proposed Text of the Draft Code of Conduct on Transnational Corporations, n. 20 above, paras 41-43.
218. D.T. Hamilton, 'Regulation of Corporations under International Environmental Law: Preserving the Global Environment', Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Canadian Council of International Law (1989), 72, at 85.
219. See Proposed Text of the Draft Code of Conduct on Transnational Corporations, n. 20 above, para. 41.
220. See A.A. Fatouros, n. 31 above, at 22.
221. See D. Shelton, n. 4 above, at 213.
222. C. Pearson, 'An Environmental Code of Conduct for Multinational Companies?', in S.J. Rubin and T.R. Graham (eds), Environment and Trade (Allanheld, 1982), 154, at 154.
223. See Proposed Text of the Draft Code of Conduct on Transnational Corporations, n. 20 above, para. 43.
224. See C. Pearson, n. 181 above, at 155.
225. H. Gleckman, 'Transnational Corporations' Strategic Responses to Sustainable Development', in H.O. Bergenses et al. (eds), Green Globe Yearbook of International Cooperation on Environment and Development (Oxford University Press, 1995), 93, at 95
226. and see K.P. Sauvant and V. Aranda, n. 2 above, at 108.
227. UNCTC, Criteria for Sustainable Development Management (United Nations, 1991).
228. See M. Hansen and V. Aranda, n. 21 above, at 889.
229. See M. Hansen, n. 19 above, at 162.
230. See P. Utting, n. 42 above, at 2-3.
231. See Agenda 21, n. 62 above, Chapter 30.
232. UNCTAD, Self Regulation of Environmental Management: Guidelines set by World Industry Associations for their Members' Firms (UN Doc. UNCTAD/ DTCI/29, Geneva, 1996)
233. UNCTAD, Self Regulation of Environmental Management - Guidelines set by World Industry Associations for their Members' Firms: An Update 1996-2003 (UN Doc. UNCTAD/DITE/IPC/2003/3, Geneva, 2003).
234. See the Global Compact (26 July 2000), Principle 7. The text of the Principles of the Global Compact are available at .
235. The website of the Global Compact is available at .
236. See United Nations Guide to the Global Compact, n. 74 above, at 52.
237. Ibid., at 54.
238. See Global Compact, n. 191 above, Principle 8.
239. See United Nations Guide to the Global Compact, n. 74 above, at 58.
240. See Global Compact, n. 191 above, Principle 9.
241. See United Nations Guide to the Global Compact, n. 74 above, at 64.
242. Draft Universal Human Rights Guidelines for Companies (UN Doc. E/CN.4/ Sub.2/2001/WG.2/WP.1/Add.1, 12 June 2001)
243. Human Rights Principles and Responsibilities for Transnational Corporations and Other Business Enterprises (UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/2002/ WG.2/WP.1/Add.2, 3 June 2002).
244. Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage (Vienna, 21 May 1963), Articles I(1)(k) and II(1); Brussels International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (Brussels, 29 November 1969), Articles II and III(1).
245. Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio de Janeiro, 5 June 1992).
246. Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (UN Doc. A/CONF.151/6/ Rev.1, 1992).
247. WSSD Plan of Implementation (UN Doc. A/CONF.199/20, 4 September 2002), Resolution 2, Annex.
248. (UN Doc. A/Res.55/2, 8 September 2000). See Norms on the Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations, n. 52 above, Preamble.
249. Ibid., Section G, para.14.
250. See S. Walker's contribution, n. 118 above, at 83.
251. See OECD Guidelines on Multinational Enterprises (DAFFE/IME/WPG(2000)15/ FINAL, 31 October 2001), at Section V, which reads as follows: 'Enterprises should, within the framework of laws, regulations, and administrative practices in the countries in which they operate and in consideration of relevant international agreements, principles and objectives and standards, take due account of the need to protect the environment, public health and safety, and generally conduct their activities in a manner contributing to the wider goal of sustainable development'.
252. See the Proposed Draft Human Rights Code of Conduct for Companies with Source Materials, n. 127 above, at Section L.
253. See OECD Guidelines on Multinational Enterprises, n. 206 above, Section V, para. 4.
254. See Norms on the Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations, n. 52 above, Section G, Commentary, at (a).
255. Ibid., at (b) and (c).
256. Ibid., at (e) and (g).
257. Ibid., at (f).
258. See Amnesty International, n. 114 above, at 11
259. See OHCHR Report, n. 165 above, para. 52.
260. See Decision on Human Rights and Transnational Corporations and Other Business Enterprises (UN Doc. E/CN.4/2005/L.87, 15 April 2005). States in favour (49 in total) were Argentina, Armenia, Bhutan, Brazil, Canada, China, Congo, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Finland, France, Gabon, Germany, Guatemala, Guinea, Honduras, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Kenya, Malaysia, Mauritania, Mexico, Nepal, Netherlands, Nigeria, Pakistan, Paraguay, Peru, Qatar, Republic of Korea, Romania, Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Swaziland, Togo, Ukraine, UK and Zimbabwe. There were three States against: Australia, South Africa and USA. Burkina Faso abstained. For the official press release, see the website available at .
261. The initial proponents were Russian Federation, India, Nigeria, UK and Argentina. Other sponsors included Austria, Belgium, Canada, Croatia, Chile, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Ethiopia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Guatemala, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Mexico, Norway, Poland, Spain, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland and Sweden.
262. UNCTAD, World Investment Report 1999: Foreign Direct Investment and the Challenge of Development (United Nations, 1999), at 367.
263. Ibid., at 369
264. and see S. Coonrod, n. 19 above, at 303.
265. Ibid., at 305
266. B. Kjellén, 'The Desertification Convention: Towards Creating a Multilateral Framework for Coping with Global Threats', in M. Rolén et al. (eds), International Governance on Environmental Issues (Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997), 69, at 77.
267. See S. Coonrod, n. 19 above, at 305
268. Amnesty International, n. 114 above, at 15
269. H. Gleckman, n. 184 above, at 100.
270. See A. King, n. 134 above, at 481.
271. P.M. Dupuy, 'Formation of Customary International Law and General Principles', in J. Brunnée et al., Handbook on International Environmental Law (Oxford University Press, forthcoming).
272. This was hoped for by a coalition of NGOs headed by Friends of the Earth; see Friends of the Earth, n. 106 above.
273. See A. Beghè Loreti, n. 16 above, at 265
274. and S. Coonrod, n. 19 above, at 287.
275. Security Council Presidential Statement (UN Doc. S/PRST/2001/39, 19 December 2001)
276. Security Council Resolution 1457 (2003), The Situation concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo (24 January 2003)
277. Security Council Resolution 1499 (2003), The Situation concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo (13 August 2003).
278. Report of the Human Rights Committee, Vol. II (UN GAOR, 45th Sess., Supp. No 40, UN Doc. A/45/40 Annex 9(A), 1990), concerning the degradation of natural resources traditionally used by the Lubicon Lake Band for subsistence livelihoods by a TNC operating in Canada.
279. Report of the Mission to the Kakadu National Park, Australia, 26 October - 1 November 1998 (UN Doc. WHC-98/CONF.203/INF.18, 29 November 1998), concerning the potential environmental and cultural threats to the park and indigenous peoples from the proposed construction of a uranium mine by a TNC in an enclave of the park.