Carcinoma of the vulva

Obstetrics and Gynecology

Volumn 107, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 719-733

  Stehman, Frederick B ^a   Look, Katherine Y ^a  

^a INDIANA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENT; CISPLATIN; FLUOROURACIL; ISOSULFAN BLUE; TECHNETIUM 99M;

ADVANCED CANCER; BASSETT WAY OPERATION; CANCER INVASION; CANCER RADIOTHERAPY; CANCER RECURRENCE; CANCER SIZE; CANCER STAGING; CANCER SURGERY; CANCER SURVIVAL; CONTINUING EDUCATION; FOLLOW UP; FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT; FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT OF CANCER THERAPY VULVAR; GYNECOLOGIC CANCER; GYNECOLOGIC SURGERY; HUMAN; IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY; INGUINAL LYMPH NODE; LYMPH NODE DISSECTION; LYMPH NODE METASTASIS; LYMPHADENECTOMY; LYMPHEDEMA; LYMPHOSCINTIGRAPHY; POSTOPERATIVE COMPLICATION; POSTOPERATIVE INFECTION; PREDICTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; QUALITY OF LIFE; REVIEW; SENTINEL LYMPH NODE; SURGICAL TECHNIQUE; TREATMENT OUTCOME; VULVA CARCINOMA; VULVECTOMY; WOUND INFECTION;

CARCINOMA, SQUAMOUS CELL; FEMALE; HUMANS; LYMPHATIC METASTASIS; NEOPLASM RECURRENCE, LOCAL; NEOPLASM STAGING; POSTOPERATIVE COMPLICATIONS; PROGNOSIS; QUALITY OF LIFE; VULVAR NEOPLASMS;

EID: 33646766125     PISSN: 00297844     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/01.AOG.0000202404.55215.72     Document Type: Review

References (168)

1. Homesley HD, Bundy BN, Sedlis A, Adcock L. Radiation therapy versus pelvic node resection for carcinoma of the vulva with positive groin nodes. Obstet Gynecol 1986;68:733-40.
2. Judson PL, Jonson AL, Paley PJ, Bliss RL, Murray KP, Downs LS Jr, et al. A prospective randomized study analyzing sartorius transposition following inguinal-femoral lymphadenectomy. Gynecol Oncol 2004;95:226-30.
3. Stehman FB, Bundy BN, Thomas G, Varia M, Okagaki T, Roberts J. Groin dissection versus groin radiation in carcinoma of the vulva: a Gynecologic Oncology Group study. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1992;24:389-96.
4. Brinton LA, Nasca PC, Mallin K, Baptiste MS, Wilbanks GD, Richart RM. Case-control study of cancer of the vulva. Obstet Gynecol 1990;75:859-66.
5. Siller BS, Alvarez RD, Conner WD, McCullough CH, Kilgore LC, Partridge EE, et al. T2/3 vulva cancer: a case-control study of triple incision versus en bloc radical vulvectomy and inguinal lymphadenectomy. Gynecol Oncol 1995;57:335-9.
6. Sherman KJ, Daling JR, Chu J, Weiss NS, Ashley RL, Corey L. Genital warts, other sexually transmitted diseases, and vulvar cancer. Epidemiology 1991;2:257-62.
7. Franklin EW, Rutledge FD. Epidemiology of epidermoid carcinoma of the vulva. Obstet Gynecol 1972;39:165-72.
8. Iversen T, Tretli S. Intraepithelial and invasive squamous cell neoplasia of the vulva: trends in incidence, recurrence, and survival rate in Norway. Obstet Gynecol 1998;91:969-72.
9. Iversen T, Aalders JG, Christensen A, Kolstad P. Squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva: a review of 424 patients, 1956-1974. Gynecol Oncol 1980;9:271-9.
10. Al-Ghamdi A, Freedman D, Miller D, Poh C, Rosin M, Zhang L, Gilks CB. Vulvar squamous cell carcinoma in young women: a clinicopathologic study of 21 cases. Gynecol Oncol 2002;84:94-101.
11. Messing MJ, Gallup DG. Carcinoma of the vulva in young women. Obstet Gynecol 1995;6:51-4.
12. Mitchell MF, Prasad CJ, Silva EG, Rutledge FN, McArthur MC, Crum CP. Second genital primary squamous neoplasms in vulvar carcinoma: viral and histopathologic correlates. Obstet Gynecol 1993;81:13-8.
13. Chafe W, Richards A, Morgan L, Wilkinson E. Unrecognized invasive carcinoma in vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN). Gynecol Oncol 1988;31:154-65.
14. Modesitt SC, Waters AB, Walton L, Fowler WC Jr, Van Le L. Vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia III: occult cancer and the impact of margin status on recurrence. Obstet Gynecol 1998;92:962-6.
15. Carli P, De Magnis A, Mannone F, Botti E, Taddei G, Cattaneo A. Vulvar carcinoma associated with lichen sclerosus. Experience at the Florence, Italy, Vulvar Clinic. J Reprod Med 2003;48:313-8.
16. Hart WR, Norris HJ, Helwig EB. Relation of lichen sclerosus et atrophicus of the vulva to development of carcinoma. Obstet Gynecol 1975;45:369-77.
17. Ansink AC, Krul MR, De Weger RA, Kleyne JA, Pijpers H, Van Tinteren H, et al. Human papillomavirus, lichen sclerosus, and squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva: detection and prognostic significance. Gynecol Oncol 1994;52:180-4.
18. Bloss JD, Liao SY, Wilczynski SP, Macri C, Walker J, Peake M, et al. Clinical and histologic features of vulvar carcinomas analyzed for human papillomavirus status: evidence that squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva has more than one etiology. Hum Pathol 1991;22:711-8.
19. Hording U, Junge J, Daugaard S, Lundvall F, Poulsen H, Bock JE. Vulvar squamous cell carcinoma and papillomaviruses: indications for two different etiologies. Gynecol Oncol 1994;52:241-6.
20. Trimble CL, Hildesheim A, Brinton LA, Shah KV, Kurman RJ. Heterogeneous etiology of squamous carcinoma of the vulva. Obstet Gynecol 1996;87:59-64.
21. Jones RW, Baranyai J, Stables S. Trends in squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva: the influence of vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia. Obstet Gynecol 1997;90:448-52.
22. Jones RW, Rowan DM. Vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia III: a clinical study of the outcome in 113 cases with relation to the later development of invasive vulvar carcinoma. Obstet Gynecol 1994;84:741-5.
23. Sturgeon SR, Brinton LA, Devesa SS, Kurman RJ. In situ and invasive vulvar cancer incidence trends (1973 to 1987). Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992;166:1482-5.
24. van der Velden J, van Lindert AC, Gimbrere CH, Oosting H, Heintz AP. Epidemiologic data on vulvar cancer: comparison of hospital with population-based data. Gynecol Oncol 1996;62:379-83.
25. Kurman RJ, Trimble CL, Shah KV. Human papillomavirus and the pathogenesis of vulvar carcinoma. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 1992;4:582-5.
26. Nuovo GJ, Delvenne P, MacConnell P, Chalas E, Neto C, Mann WJ. Correlation of histology and detection of human papillomavirus DNA in vulvar cancers. Gynecol Oncol 1991;43:275-80.
27. Rusk D, Sutton GP, Look KY, Roman A. Analysis of invasive squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva and vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia for the presence of human papilloma DNA. Obstet Gynecol 1991;77:918-22.
28. Carter J, Carlson J, Fowler J, Hartenbach E, Adcock L, Carson L, et al. Invasive vulvar tumors in young women: a disease of the immunosuppressed? Gynecol Oncol 1993;51:307-10.
29. Choo YC. Invasive squamous carcinoma of the vulva in young patients. Gynecol Oncol 1982;13:158-64.
30. Jones RW, Joura EA. Analyzing prior clinical events at presentation in 102 women with vulvar carcinoma: evidence of diagnostic delays. J Reprod Med 1999;44:766-8.
31. Plentl AA, Friedman EA. Lymphatic system of the female genitalia: the morphologic basis of oncologic diagnosis and therapy. Philadelphia (PA): Saunders; 1971.
32. Figge DC, Tamimi HK, Greer BE. Lymphatic spread in carcinoma of the vulva. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1985;152:387-94.
33. Andrews SJ, Williams BT, DePriest PD, Gallion HH, Hunter JE, Buckley SL, et al. Therapeutic implications of lymph nodal spread in lateral T1 and T2 squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. Gynecol Oncol 1994;55:41-6.
34. Eriksson E, Eldh J, Peterson LE. Surgical treatment of carcinoma of the clitoris. Gynecol Oncol 1984;17:291-5.
35. Hoffman MS, Roberts WS, La Polla JP, Fiorica JV, Cavanagh D. Carcinoma of the vulva involving the perianal or anal skin. Gynecol Oncol 1989;35:215-8.
36. Homesley HD, Bundy BN, Sedlis A, Yordan E, Berek JS, Jahshan A, et al. Assessment of current International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics staging of vulvar carcinoma relative to prognostic factors for survival (a Gynecologic Oncology Group study). Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991;164:997-1003.
37. Homesley HD, Bundy BN, Sedlis A, Yordan E, Berek JS, Jahshan A, et al. Prognostic factors for groin node metastasis in squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva (a Gynecologic Oncology Group study). Gynecol Oncol 1993;49:279-83.
38. Podratz KC, Symmonds RE, Taylor WF, Williams TJ. Carcinoma of the vulva: analysis of treatment and survival. Obstet Gynecol 1983;61:63-74.
39. de Hullu JA, Oonk MHM, Ansink AC, Hollema H, Jager PL, van der Zee AGJ. Pitfalls in the sentinel lymph node procedure in vulvar cancer. Gynecol Oncol 2004;94:10-5.
40. Crosby JH, Bryan AB, Gallup DG, Talledo OE. Fine-needle aspiration of inguinal lymph nodes in gynecologic practice. Obstet Gynecol 1989;73:281-4.
41. Moore DH, Thomas GM, Montana GS, Saxer A, Gallup DG, Olt G, et al. Preoperative chemoradiation for advanced vulvar cancer: a phase II study of the Gynecologic Oncology Group. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1998;42:79-85.
42. Andreasson B, Nyboe J. Value of prognostic parameters in squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. Gynecol Oncol 1985;22:341-51.
43. Binder SW, Huang I, Fu YS, Hacker NF, Berek JS. Risk factors for the development of lymph node metastasis in vulvar squamous cell carcinoma. Gynecol Oncol 1990;37:9-16.
44. Boyce J, Fruchter RG, Kasambilides E, Nicastri AD, Sedlis A, Remy JC. Prognostic factors in carcinoma of the vulva. Gynecol Oncol 1985;20:364-77.
45. Donaldson ES, Powell DE, Hanson MB, van Nagell JR Jr. Prognostic parameters in invasive vulvar cancer. Gynecol Oncol 1981;11:184-90.
46. Franklin EW III, Rutledge FD. Prognostic factors in epidermoid carcinoma of the vulva. Obstet Gynecol 1971;7:892-901.
47. Hacker NF, Berek JS, Lagasse L, Leuchter RS, Moore JG. Management of regional lymph nodes and their prognostic influence in vulvar cancer. Obstet Gynecol 1983;61:408-12.
48. Iversen T. Squamous cell carcinoma Localization of the primary tumor and lymph node metastases. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1981;60:211-4.
49. Kurzl R, Messerer D. Prognostic factors in squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva: a multivariate analysis. Gynecol Oncol 1989;32:143-50.
50. Maggino T, Landoni F, Sartori E, Zola P, Gadducci A, Alessi C, et al. Patterns of recurrence in patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. A multicenter CTF study. Cancer 2000;89:116-22.
51. Malmström H, Janson H, Simonsen E, Stenson S, Stendahl U. Prognostic factors in invasive squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva treated with surgery and irradiation. Acta Oncol 1990;29:915-9.
52. Morley GW. Infiltrative carcinoma of the vulva: results of surgical treatment. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1976;124:874-88.
53. Origoni M, Sideri M, Garsia S, Carinelli SG, Ferrari AG. Prognostic value of pathological patterns of lymph node positivity in squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva stage III and IVA FIGO. Gynecol Oncol 1992;45:313-6.
54. Piura B, Masotina A, Murdoch J, Lopes A, Morgan P, Monaghan J. Recurrent squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva: a study of 73 cases. Gynecol Oncol 1993;48:189-95.
55. Simonsen E. Invasive squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. Ann Chir Gynaecol 1984;73:331-8.
56. Burger MP, Hollema H, Emanuels AG, Krans M, Pras E, Bouma J. The importance of the groin node status for the survival of T1 and T2 vulval carcinoma patients. Gynecol Oncol 1995;57:327-34.
57. Stehman FB, Bundy BN, Ball H, Clarke-Pearson DL. Sites of failure and times to failure in carcinoma of the vulva treated conservatively: a Gynecologic Oncology Group study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996;174:1128-32.
58. Curry SL, Wharton JT, Rutledge F. Positive lymph nodes in the vulvar squamous carcinoma. Gynecol Oncol 1980;9:63-7.
59. Rutledge FN, Mitchell MF, Munsell MF, Atkinson EN, Bass S, McGuffee V, Silva E. Prognostic indicators for invasive carcinoma of the vulva. Gynecol Oncol 1991;42:239-44.
60. Heaps JM, Fu YS, Montz FJ, Hacker NF, Berek JS. Surgical-pathologic variables predictive of local recurrence in squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. Gynecol Oncol 1990;38:309-14.
61. Rouzier R, Haddad B, Plantier F, Dubois P, Pelisse M, Paniel BJ. Local relapse in patients treated for squamous cell vulvar carcinoma: incidence and prognostic value. Obstet Gynecol 2002;100:1159-67.
62. Rouzier R, Morice P, Haie-Meder C, Lhomme C, Avril MF, Duvillard P, et al. Prognostic significance of epithelial disorders adjacent to invasive vulvar carcinomas. Gynecol Oncol 2001;81:414-9.
63. Way S. Carcinoma of the vulva. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1960;79:692-7.
64. Green THJr. Carcinoma of the vulva: a reassessment. Obstet Gynecol 1978;52:462-9.
65. Rutledge F, Smith JP, Franklin EW. Carcinoma of the vulva. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1970;106:1117-30.
66. Taussig FJ. Cancer of the vulva: an analysis of 155 cases. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1940;40:764-79.
67. Ballon SC, Lamb EJ. Separate inguinal incisions in the treatment of carcinoma of the vulva. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1975;140:81-4.
68. Hacker NF, Leuchter RS, Berek JS, Castaldo TW, Lagasse LD. Radical vulvectomy and bilateral inguinal lymphadenectomy through separate groin incisions. Obstet Gynecol 1981;58:574-9.
69. Sutton GP, Miser MR, Stehman FB, Look KY, Ehrlich CE. Trends in the operative management of invasive squamous carcinoma of the vulva at Indiana University, 1974 to 1988. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991;164:1472-81.
70. Chu J, Tamimi HK, Ek M, Figge D. Stage I vulvar cancer: criteria for microinvasion. Obstet Gynecol 1982;59:716-9.
71. Dvoretsky PM, Bonfiglio TA, Helmkamp BF, Ramsey G, Chuang C, Beecham JB. The pathology of superficially invasive thin vulvar squamous cell carcinoma. Int J Gynecol Pathol 1984;3:331-42.
72. Hacker NF, Nieberg RK, Berek JS, Leuchter RS, Lucas WE, Tamimi HK, et al. Superficially invasive vulvar cancer with nodal metastases. Gynecol Oncol 1983;15:65-77.
73. Kurzl R, Messerer D, Baltzer J, Lohe KJ, Zander J. Comparative morphometric study on the depth of invasion in vulvar carcinoma. Gynecol Oncol 1988;29:12-25.
74. Ross MJ, Ehrmann RL. Histologic prognosticators in stage I squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. Obstet Gynecol 1987;70:774-84.
75. Wharton JT, Gallager S, Rutledge FN. Microinvasive carcinoma of the vulva. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1974;118:159-62.
76. Wilkinson FJ, Rico MJ, Pierson KK. Microinvasive carcinoma of the vulva. Int J Gynecol Pathol 1982;1:29-39.
77. Yazigi R, Piver MS, Tsukada Y. Microinvasive carcinoma of the vulva. Obstet Gynecol 1978;51:368-70.
78. Sedlis A, Homesley H, Bundy BN, Marshall R, Yordan E, Hacker N, et al. Positive groin lymph nodes in superficial squamous cell vulvar cancer: a Gynecologic Oncology Group Study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987;156:1159-64.
79. Wilkinson FJ. Protocol for the examination of specimens from patients with carcinomas and malignant melanomas of the vulva: a basis for checklists. Cancer Committee of the American College of Pathologists. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2000;124:51-6.
80. DiSaia PJ, Creasman WT, Rich WM. An alternate approach to early cancer of the vulva. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1979;133:825-32.
81. Berman ML, Soper JT, Creasman WT, Olt GT, DiSaia PJ. Conservative surgical management of superficially invasive stage I vulvar carcinoma. Gynecol Oncol 1989;35:352-7.
82. Burrell MO, Franklin EW 3rd, Campion MJ, Crozier MA, Stacy DW. The modified radical vulvectomy with groin dissection: an eight-year experience. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988;159:715-22.
83. Iversen T, Abeler V, Aalders J. Individualized treatment of Stage I carcinoma of the vulva. Obstet Gynecol 1981;57:85-9.
84. Hacker NF, Berek JS, Lagasse LD, Nieberg RK, Leuchter RS. Individualization of treatment for stage I squamous cell vulvar carcinoma. Obstet Gynecol 1984;63:155-62.
85. Stehman FB, Bundy BN, Dvoretsky PM, Creasman WT. Early stage I carcinoma of the vulva treated with ipsilateral superficial inguinal lymphadenectomy and modified radical hemivulvectomy: a prospective study of the Gynecologic Oncology Group. Obstet Gynecol 1992;79:490-7.
86. Gordinier ME, Malpica A, Burke TW, Bodurka DC, Wolf JK, Jhingran A, et al. Groin recurrence in patients with vulvar cancer with negative nodes on superficial inguinal lymphadenectomy. Gynecol Oncol 2003;90:625-8.
87. Burke TW, Levenback C, Coleman RL, Morris M, Silva EG, Gershenson DM. Surgical therapy of T1 and T2 vulvar carcinoma: further experience with radical wide excision and selective inguinal lymphadenectomy. Gynecol Oncol 1995;57:215-20.
88. Borgno G, Micheletti L, Barbero M, Cavanna L, Preti M, Valentino MC, et al. Topographic distribution of groin lymph nodes: a study of 50 female cadavers. J Reprod Med 1990;35:1127-9.
89. Hudson CN, Shulver H, Lowe DC. The surgery of inguinofemoral lymph nodes: is it adequate or excessive? Int J Gynecol Cancer 2004;14:841-5.
90. Micheletti L, Levi AC, Bogliatto F. Anatomosurgical implications derived from an embryological study of the Scarpa's triangle with particular reference to groin lymphadenectomy. Gynecol Oncol 1998;70:358-64.
91. Levenback C, Morris M, Burke TW, Gershenson DM, Wolf JK, Wharton JT. Groin dissection practices among gynecologic oncologists treating early vulvar cancer. Gynecol Oncol 1996;62:73-7.
92. 0) disease. Gynecol Oncol 1994;53:55-8.
93. Bell JG, Lea JS, Reid GC. Complete groin lymphadenectomy with preservation of the fascia lata in the treatment of vulvar carcinoma. Gynecol Oncol 2000;77:314-8.
94. de Hullu JA, Hollema H, Lolkema S, Boezen M, Boonstra H, Burger MP, et al. Vulvar carcinoma: the price of less radical surgery. Cancer 2002;95:2331-8.
95. Kirby TO, Rocconi RP, Numnum TM, Kendrick JE, Wright J, Fowler W, et al. Outcomes of stage I/II vulvar cancer patients after negative superficial inguinal lymphadenectomy. Gynecol Oncol 2005;98:309-12.
96. Cavanagh D, Fiorica JV, Hoffman MS, Roberts WS, Bryson SC, LaPolla JP. Invasive carcinoma of the vulva: changing trends in surgical management. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990;163:1007-15.
97. Creasman WT, Phillips JL, Mench HR. The National Cancer Data Base report on early stage invasive vulvar carcinoma. The American College of Surgeons Commission on Cancer to the American Cancer Society. Cancer 1997;80:505-13.
98. Thomas GM, Dembo AJ, Bryson SC, Osborne R, DePetrillo AD. Changing concepts in the management of vulvar cancer. Gynecol Oncol 1991;42:9-21.
99. Plaxe SC, Braley PS, Dottino PR. A simplified approach to superficial inguinal dissection with sparing of the saphenous vein in patients with carcinoma of the vulva. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1993;176:295-6.
100. Zhang SH, Sood AK, Sorosky JI, Anderson B, Buller RE. Preservation of the saphenous vein during inguinal lymphadenectomy decreases morbidity in patients with carcinoma of the vulva Cancer 2000;89:1520-5.
101. Paley PJ, Johnson PR, Adcock LL, Cosin JA, Chen MD, Fowler JM, et al. The effect of sartorius transposition on wound morbidity following inguinal-femoral lymphadenectomy. Gynecol Oncol 1997;64:237-41.
102. Judson PL, Jonson AL, Paley PJ, Bliss RL, Murray KP, Downs LS Jr, et al. A prospective, randomized study analyzing sartorius transposition following inguinal-femoral lymphadenectomy. Gynecol Oncol 2004;95:226-30.
103. Rouzier R, Haddad B, Dubernard G, Dubois P, Paniel BJ. Inguinofemoral dissection for carcinoma of the vulva: effect of modifications of extent and technique on morbidity and survival. J Am Coll Surg 2003;196:442-50.
104. Gaarenstroom KN, Kenter GG, Trimbos JB, Agous I, Amant F, Peters AAW, Vergote I. Postoperative complications after vulvectomy and inguinofemoral lymphadenectomy using separate groin incisions. Int J Gynecol Cancer 2003;13:522-7.
105. Cabanas RM. An approach for the treatment of penile carcinoma. Cancer 1977;39:456-66.
106. Morton DL, Wen DR, Wong JH, Economou JS, Cagle LA, Storm FK, et al. Technical details of intra-operative lymphatic mapping for early stage melanoma. Arch Surg 1992;127:392-9.
107. Levenback C, Burke TW, Gershenson DM, Morris M, Malpica A, Ross MI. Intraoperative lymphatic mapping for vulvar cancer. Obstet Gynecol 1994;84:163-7.
108. Levenback C, Burke TW, Morris M, Malpica A, Lucas KR, Gershenson DM. Potential applications of intraoperative lymphatic mapping in vulvar cancer. Gynecol Oncol 1995;59:216-20.
109. Levenback C, Coleman RL, Burke TW, Bodurka-Bevers D, Wolf JK, Gershenson DM. Intraoperative lymphatic mapping and sentinel node identification with blue dye in patients with vulvar cancer. Gynecol Oncol 2001;83:276-81.
110. De Cicco C, Sideri M, Bartolomei M, Grana C, Cremonesi M, Fiorenza M. Sentinel node biopsy in early vulvar cancer. Br J Cancer 2000;82:295-9.
111. Sideri M, De Cicco C, Maggioni A, Colombo N, Bocciolone L, Trifiro G. Detection of sentinal nodes by lymphoscintigraphy and gamma probe guided surgery in vulvar neoplasia. Tumori 2000;86:359-63.
112. Terada KY, Shimizu DM, Wong JH. Sentinel node dissection and ultrastaging in squamous cell cancer of the vulva. Gynecol Oncol 2000;76:40-4.
113. de Hullu JA, Hollema H, Piers DA, Verheijen RH, van Diest PJ, Mounts MJ, et al. Sentinel lymph node procedure is highly accurate in squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. J Clin Oncol 2000;18:2811-6.
114. Louis-Sylvestre C, Evangelista E, Leonard F, Itti E, Meignan M, Paniel BJ. Sentinel node localization should be interpreted with caution in midline vulvar cancer. Gynecol Oncol 2005;97:151-4.
115. Puig-Tintore LM, Ordi J, Vidal-Sicart S, Lejarcegui JA, Torne A, Pahisa J, Iglesias X. Further data on the usefulness of sentinel lymph node identification and ultrastaging in vulvar squamous cell carcinoma. Gynecol Oncol 2003;88:29-34.
116. Plante M, Renaud MC, Roy M. Sentinel node evaluation in gynecologic cancer. Oncology 2004;18:75-87.
117. Moore RG, DePasquale SE, Steinhoff MM, Gajewski W, Steller M, Noto R, et al. Sentinel node identification and the ability to detect metastatic tumor to inguinal lymph nodes in squamous cell cancer of the vulva. Gynecol Oncol 2003;89:475-9.
118. Sliutz G, Reinthaller A, Lantzsch T, Mende T, Sinzinger H, Kainz C, et al. Lymphatic mapping of sentinel nodes in early vulvar cancer. Gynecol Oncol 2002;84:449-52.
119. Ansink AC, Sie-Go DM, van der Velden J, Sijmons EA, de Barros Lopes A, Monaghan JM, et al. Identification of sentinel lymph nodes in vulvar carcinoma patients with the aid of a patent blue V injection: a multicenter study. Cancer 1999;86:652-6.
120. Merisio C, Berretta R, Gualdi M, Pultrone DC, Anfuso S, Agnese G, et al. Radioguided sentinel lymph node detection in vulvar cancer. Int J Gynecol Cancer 2005;15:493-7.
121. Tamussino KF, Bader AA, Lax SF, Aigner RM, Winter R. Groin recurrence after micrometastasis in a sentinel lymph node in a patient with vulvar cancer. Gynecol Oncol 2002;86:99-101.
122. Barnhill DR, Hoskins WJ, Metz P. Use of the rhomboid flap after partial vulvectomy. Obstet Gynecol 1983;62:444-7.
123. Burke TW, Morris M, Levenback C, Gershenson DM, Wharton JT. Closure of complex vulvar defects using local rhomboid flaps. Obstet Gynecol 1994;84:1043-7.
124. Helm CW, Hatch KD, Partridge EE, Shingleton HM. The rhomboid transposition flap for repair of the perineal defect after radical vulvar surgery. Gynecol Oncol 1993;50:164-7.
125. Ballon SC, Donaldson RC, Roberts JA, Lagasse LD. Reconstruction of the vulva using a myocutaneous graft. Gynecol Oncol 1979;7:123-7.
126. Burke TW, Morris M, Roh MS, Levenback C, Gershenson DM. Perineal reconstruction using single gracilis myocutaneous flaps. Gynecol Oncol 1995;57:221-5.
127. Patsner B, Hetzler P. Post-radical vulvectomy reconstruction using the inferiorly based transverse rectus abdominis (TRAM) flap: a preliminary experience. Gynecol Oncol 1994;55:78-81.
128. Cavanagh D, Shepherd JH. The place of pelvic exenteration in the primary management of advanced carcinoma of the vulva. Gynecol Oncol 1982;13:318-22.
129. Hopkins MP, Morley GW. Pelvic exenteration for the treatment of vulvar cancer. Cancer 1992;70:2835-8.
130. Miller B, Morris M, Levenback C, Burke TW, Gershenson DM. Pelvic exenteration for primary and recurrent vulvar cancer. Gynecol Oncol 1995;58:202-5.
131. Remmenga S, Barnhill D, Nash J, Bosscher J, Teneriello M, Park R. Radical vulvectomy with partial rectal resection and temporary colostomy as primary therapy for selected patients with vulvar carcinoma. Obstet Gynecol 1991;77:577-9.
132. Thomas G, Dembo A, DePetrillo A, Pringle J, Ackerman I, Bryson P, et al. Concurrent radiation and chemotherapy in vulvar carcinoma. Gynecol Oncol 1989;34:263-7.
133. O squamous carcinoma of the vulva. Cancer 1974;34:161-5.
134. Henderson RH, Parsons JT, Morgan L, Million RR. Elective ilioinguinal lymph node irradiation. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1984;10:811-9.
135. Katz A, Eifel PJ, Jhingran A, Levenback CF. The role of radiation therapy in preventing regional recurrences of invasive squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2003;57:409-18.
136. Koh WJ, Chiu M, Stelzer KJ, Greer BE, Mastras D, Comsia N, et al. Femoral vessel depth and the implications for groin node radiation. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1993;27:969-74.
137. Jenkins PJ, Montefiore DJ, Arnott SJ. Hip complications following chemoradiotherapy. Clin Oncol 1995;7:123-6.
138. Leiserowitz GS, Russell AH, Kinney WK, Smith LH, Taylor MH, Scudder SA. Prophylactic chemoradiation of inguinofemoral lymph nodes in patients with locally extensive vulvar cancer. Gynecol Oncol 1997;66:509-14.
139. van der Velden K, Ansink A. Primary groin irradiation vs primary groin surgery for early vulvar cancer (Cochrane Review). In: The Cochrane Library, Issue 4, 2001. Oxford: Update Software.
140. Boronow RC. Therapeutic alternative to primary exenteration for advanced vulvovaginal cancer. Gynecol Oncol 1973;1:233-55.
141. Boronow RC. Combined therapy as an alternative to exenteration for locally advanced vulvo-vaginal cancer: rationale and results. Cancer 1982;49:1085-91.
142. Roberts WS, Hoffman MS, LaPolla JP, Ruas E, Fiorica JV, Cavanagh D. Management of radionecrosis of the vulva and distal vagina. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991;164:1235-8.
143. Busch M, Wagener B, Duhmke E. Long-term results of radiotherapy alone for carcinoma of the vulva. Adv Ther 1999;16:89-100.
144. Hacker NF, Berek JS, Julliard GJ, Lagasse LD. Preoperative radiation therapy for locally advanced vulvar cancer. Cancer 1984;54:2056-61.
145. Malfetano J, Piver MS, Tsukada Y. Stage III and IV squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. Gynecol Oncol 1986;23:192-8.
146. Russell AH, Mesic JB, Scudder SA, Rosenberg PJ, Smith LH, Kinney WK, et al. Synchronous radiation and cytotoxic chemotherapy for locally advanced or recurrent squamous cancer of the vulva. Gynecol Oncol 1992;47:14-20.
147. Koh WJ, Wallace HJ 3rd, Greer BE, Cain J, Stelzer KJ, Russell KJ, et al. Combined radiotherapy and chemotherapy in the management of local-regionally advanced vulvar cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1993;26:809-16.
148. Berek JS, Heaps JM, Fu YS, Juillard GJ, Hacker NF. Concurrent cisplatin and 5-fluorouracil chemotherapy and radiation therapy for advanced-stage squamous carcinoma of the vulva. Gynecol Oncol 1991;42:197-201.
149. Eifel PJ, Morris M, Burke TW, Levenback C, Gershenson DM. Prolonged continuous infusion cisplatin and 5-fluorouracil with radiation for locally advanced carcinoma of the vulva. Gynecol Oncol 1995;59:51-6.
150. Landoni F, Maneo A, Zanetta G, Colombo A, Nava S, Placa F, et al. Concurrent preoperative chemotherapy with 5-fluorouracil and mitomycin C and radiotherapy (FUMIR) followed by limited surgery in locally advanced and recurrent vulvar carcinoma. Gynecol Oncol 1996;61:321-7.
151. Lupi G, Raspagliesi F, Zucali R, Fontanelli R, Paladin D, Kenda R, et al. Combined preoperative chemoradiotherapy followed by radical surgery in locally advanced vulvar carcinoma. A pilot study. Cancer 1996;77:1472-8.
152. Whalen SA, Slater JD, Wagner RJ, Wang WA, Keeney ED, Hocko JM, et al. Concurrent radiation therapy and chemotherapy in the treatment of primary squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. Cancer 1995;75:2289-94.
153. Montana GS, Thomas GM, Moore DH, Saxer A, Mangan CE, Lentz SS, et al. Preoperative chemo-radiation for carcinoma of the vulva with N2/N3 nodes: a gynecology oncology group study. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2000;48:1007-13.
154. Chafe W, Fowler WC, Walton LA, Currie JL. Radical vulvectomy with use of tensor fascia lata myocutaneous flap. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1983;145:207-13.
155. Reid GC, DeLancey JO, Hopkins MP, Roberts JA, Morley GW. Urinary incontinence following radical vulvectomy. Obstet Gynecol 1990;75:852-8.
156. Lin JY, DuBeshter B, Angel C, Dvoretsky PM. Morbidity and recurrence with modifications of radical vulvectomy and groin dissection. Gynecol Oncol 1992;47:80-6.
157. Gould N, Kamelle S, Tillmanns T, Scribner D, Gold M, Walker J, Mannel R. Predictors of complications after inguinal lymphadenectomy. Gynecol Oncol 2001;82:329-32.
158. Podratz KC, Symmonds RE, Taylor WF. Carcinoma of the vulva: analysis of treatment failures. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1982;143:340-51.
159. Oonk MH, de Hullu JA, Hollema H, Mourtis MJ, Pras E, Wymenga AN, van der Zee AG. The value of routine follow-up in patients treated for carcinoma of the vulva. Cancer 2003;98:2624-9.
160. van der Velden J, Schilthuis MS, Hyde SE, Ten Kate FJ, Burger MP. Squamous cell cancer of the vulva with occult lymph nodes metastases in the groin: the impact of surgical technique on recurrence pattern and survival. Int J Gynecol Cancer 2004;14:633-8.
161. Rowley KC, Gallion HH, Donaldson ES, van Nagell JR, Higgins RV, Powell DE, et al. Prognostic factors in early vulvar cancer. Gynecol Oncol 1988;31:43-9.
162. Hopkins MP, Reid GC, Morley GW. The surgical management of recurrent squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. Obstet Gynecol 1990;75:1001-5.
163. Simonsen E. Treatment of recurrent squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. Acta Radiol Oncol 1984;23:345-8.
164. Tilmans AS, Sutton GP, Look KY, Stehman FB, Ehrlich CE, Hornback NB. Recurrent squamous carcinoma of the vulva. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992;167:1383-9.
165. Gonzalez Bosquet J, Magrina JF, Gaffey TA, Hernandez JL, Webb MJ, Cliby WA, Podratz KC. Long-term survival and disease recurrence in patients with primary squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. Gynecol Oncol 2005;97:828-33.
166. Deppe G, Cohen CJ, Bruckner HW. Chemotherapy of squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva: a review. Gynecol Oncol 1979;7:345-8.
167. Andersen BL, Hacker NF. Psychosexual adjustment after vulvar surgery. Obstet Gynecol 1983;62:457-62.
168. Janda M, Obermair A, Cella D, Perrin LC, Nicklin JL, Ward BG, Crandon AJ, Trimmel M. The functional assessment of cancer-vulvar: reliability and validity. Gynecol Oncol 2005;97:568-75.