A return to the national paradigm? National history writing in Germany, Italy, France, and Britain from 1945 to the present

Journal of Modern History

Volumn 77, Issue 3, 2005, Pages 629-678

  Berger, Stefan ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 33646698411     PISSN: 00222801     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/497719     Document Type: Review

References (246)

1. Frank Hadler, "Drachen und Drachentöter: Das Problem der nationalgeschichtlichen Fixierung in den Historiographien Ostmitteleuropas nach dem zweiten Weltkrieg," in Die Nation schreiben: Geschichtswissenschaft im internationalen Vergleich, ed. Christoph Conrad and Sebastian Conrad (Göttingen, 2002), 137-64.
2. "Gespaltene Geschichtskulturen? Die Bedeutung des zweiten Weltkrieges für die Etablierung nationalstaatlicher Symboliken und kollektiver Erinnerungskulturen in Ostmitteleuropa" (international conference in L'viv, Ukraine, May 30-June 1, 2003, organized by Stefan Troebst, Wilfried Jilge Jaroslav Hrycak, and Taras Voznjak).
3. Peter Novick, That Noble Dream: The "Objectivity Question" and the American Historical Profession (Cambridge, MA, 1988), pt. 2: "Objectivity Reconstructed."
4. Sebastian Conrad, Auf der Suche nach der verlorenen Nation: Geschichtsschreibung in West-deutschland und Japan, 1945-1960 (Göttingen, 1999). On the relationship between Japanese historiography and nation building,
5. see also Stefan Tanaka, Japan's Orient: Rendering Pasts into History (Berkeley, 1993).
6. Jie-Hyun Lim, "The Configuration of Orient and Occident in the Global Chain of National Histories: Writing National Histories in North-East Asia," in Narrating the Nation: The Representation of National Narratives in Different Genres, ed. Stefan Berger and Linas Eriksonas (Oxford, forthcoming).
7. Sumit Sarkar, "The Many Worlds of Indian History," in Writing Social History, ed. Sumit Sarkar (Oxford, 1997);
8. Ade Ajadi and Jacob Festus, "National History in the Context of Decol onization: The Nigerian Example," in Conceptions of National History, ed. Erik Lönnroth, Karl Molin, and Ragnar Björk (New York, 1994).
9. I am directing a five-year European Science Foundation program on the relationship between national historiographies and national identity formation. For further information see http://www.uni-leipzig.de/zhs/esf-nhist
10. and http://www.esf.org/nhist, which give details of the program, "Representations of the Past: The Writing of National Histories in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Europe."
11. Marcel Cornis-Pope and John Neubauer, eds., History of Literary Cultures of East-Central Europe: Junctures and Disjunctures in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Amsterdam, 2004).
12. On the "Knopp phenomenon," see Wulf Kansteiner, "Die Radikalisierung des deutschen Gedächtnisses im Zeitalter seiner kommerziellen Reproduktion: Hitler und das 'Dritte Reich' in den Fernsehdokumentationen von Guido Knopp," Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft 51 (2003): 626-48.
13. Peter Burke, "Western Historical Thinking in a Global Perspective - 10 Theses," in Western Historical Thinking: An Intercultural Debate, ed. Jöm Rüsen (Oxford, 2002), 15-32.
14. For an illuminating interview with François, see Jean-Marc Dreyfus, "Un Entretien avec Etienne François," European Review of History 10 (2003): 489-96.
15. This is a point frequently made by John Breuilly. See, e.g., the inaugural lecture by John Breuilly, Myth-Making or Myth-Breaking? Nationalism and History (Birmingham: University of Birmingham, 1997), 22.
16. Richard Bos worth, Explaining Auschwitz and Hiroshima: History Writing and the Second World War, 1945-1990 (London, 1993), 3, 140.
17. Frank R. Ankersmit, "Trauma and Suffering: A Forgotten Source of Western Historical Consciousness," in Rüsen, Western Historical Thinking, 72-84.
18. Stefan Berger, "Comparative History," in Writing History: Theory and Practice, ed. Stefan Berger, Heiko Feldner, and Kevin Passmore (London, 2003), 161-79.
19. Ritter's highly complex positioning after 1945, which was characterized by a willingness to revise aspects of the traditional national master narrative in Germany, has been analyzed in great detail by Christoph Cornelissen, Gerhard Ritter: Geschichtswissenschaft und Politik im 20. Jahrhunden (Düsseldorf, 2001), 371 ff.
20. Hans Rothfels, Die deutsche Opposition gegen Hitler (Krefeld, 1949);
21. Gerhard Ritter, Carl Goerdeler und die deutsche Widerstandsbewegung (Munich, 1964).
22. Jürgen Danyel, "Bilder vom 'anderen Deutschland': Frühe Widerstandsrezeption nach 1945: Der Umgang mit dem Widerstand in der Nachkriegszeit - eine plurale Erinnerung?" Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft 42, no. 7 (1994): 611-21.
23. Friedrich Meinecke, Die deutsche Katastrophe: Betrachtungen und Erinnerungen (Wiesbaden, 1946);
24. also see Alfred von Martin, "Entpreußung der deutschen Geschichtswissenschaft," Stimmen der Zeit 142 (1948): 61-67;
25. Ludwig Dehio, Deutschland und die Weltpolitik im 20. Jahrhundert (Munich, 1955).
26. On Dehio, see Thomas Beckers, Abkehr von Preußen: Ludwig Dehio und die deutsche Geschichtswissenschaft nach 1945 (Aichach, 2001).
27. Veit Valentin, Geschichte der Deutschen (Berlin, 1947).
28. Most of the important contributions to the debate are assembled in Lothar Gall, ed., Das Bismarck-Problem in der Geschichtsschreibung nach 1945 (Cologne, 1971).
29. It was, above all, more European, emphasizing trends toward Westernization in German history and portraying Germany as part and parcel of a Christian Occident (Abendlandideologie). The term "conservative liberal" is used here to describe a political position to the right of the center but short of being extreme right wing.
30. Edgar Wolfrum, Geschichtspolitik in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Der Weg zur bundes-republikanischen Erinnerung, 1948-1990 (Darmstadt, 1999), 191.
31. Alexander Abusch, Der Irrweg der Nation: Ein Beitrag zum Verständnis der deutschen Geschichte (Berlin, 1947).
32. Robert Walinski-Kiehl, "Reformation History and Political Mythology in the German Democratic Republic, 1949-89," European History Quarterly 34 (2004): 43-67.
33. Benedetto Croce, Scritti e discorsi politici, 1943-1947 (Naples, 1993);
34. Adolfo Omodeo, L'età del Risorgimento italiano (Naples, 1996);
35. on Luigi Salvatorelli, see Giovanni Spadolini, ed., Il mondo di Luigi Salvatorelli (Firenze, 1980).
36. See, e.g., Frederic Chabod, Stori della politica estera italiana dal 1870 al 1896 (Bari, 1951);
37. Rosario Romeo, Il Risorgimento in Sicilia (Bari, 1950).
38. On Gobetti, see Angelo D'Orsi, La cultura a Torino tra le due guerre (Turin, 2000).
39. Fabio Cusin, Antistoria d'ltalia (Turin, 1948).
40. Gaetano Salvemini, "Introduction," in Arcangelo William Salomone, Italian Democracy in the Making: The Political Scene in the Giolittian Era, 1900-1914 (Philadelphia, 1945).
41. Roberto Vivarelli, "A Neglected Question: Historians and the Italian National State (1945-1995)," in Writing National Histories: Western Europe since 1800, ed. Stefan Berger, Mark Donovan, and Kevin Passmore (London, 1999), 230-36;
42. for a good introduction to Italian postwar historiography generally, see Roberto Pertici, Storici italiani del novecento (Pisa, 2000).
43. Jens Petersen, "Wandlungen des italienischen Nationalbewuß tseins nach 1945," Quellen und Forschung aus italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken 71 (1991): 710.
44. Ada Ferrari, "Democrazia Cristiana e idea nazionale: La memoria e il progetto," Storia contemporanea 25, no. 6 (1994): 887-928.
45. See, e.g., Roberto Battaglia, Storia della resistenza italiana (8 Settembre 1943-25 Aprile 1945) (Turin, 1953). Battaglia's work was reprinted several times and became the standard Communist history of the Resistance.
46. Tony Judt, "The Past Is Another Country: Myth and Memory in Postwar Europe," in The Politics of Retribution in Europe: World War II and Its Aftermath, ed. István Deak, Jan T. Gross, and Tony Judt (Princeton, NJ, 2000), 302.
47. Cinzio Violante in "Podiumsdiskussion: Das Verhältnis von Geschichte und Politik in der Kultur Italiens und Deutschlands," in Geschichte und Geschichtswissenschaft in der Kultur Italiens und Deutschlands, ed. Arnold Esch and Jens Petersen (Tübingen, 1989), 251.
48. There were, of course, many other story lines, and the Gaullist hegemony in particular can easily be construed from the hindsight of the Fifth Republic, but in terms of sheer coherence and power the Gaullist narrative and its Communist counterpart had few rivals.
49. Hugo Frey, "Rebuilding France: Gaullist Historiography, the Rise-Fall Myth and French Identity," in Berger et al., Writing National Histories, 205-16.
50. Robert Gildea, The Past in French History (New Haven, CT, 1994), 62.
51. On the practicalities of the making of Gaullist myths about the Resistance, see Sarah Farmer, Martyred Village: Commemorating the 1944 Massacre at Oradour-sur-Glane (Berkeley, 1999).
52. Pierre Nora, "Gaullists and Communists," in Realms of Memory: Rethinking the French Past, vol. 1, Conflicts and Divisions, ed. Pierre Nora (New York, 1996), 213.
53. Christopher Flood and Hugo Frey, "Extreme Right-Wing Reactions to Charles de Gaulle's Mémoires de Guerre: A Scene from the French Civil War," South Central Review 17, no. 4 (2000): 72-83.
54. Nora, "Gaullists and Communists," 205 ff.
55. Bill Schwanz, '"The People' in History: The Communist Party Historian's Group, 1945-56," in Making Histories: Studies in History-Writing and Politics, ed. R. Johnson, G. McLennan, B. Schwarz, and D. Sutton (London, 1982), 44-95.
56. Angus Calder, The People's War (London, 1971).
57. As late as 1978 Alan Macfarlane saw individualism as the defining characteristic of Englishness, tracing it back to the Anglo-Saxons. See Alan Macfarlane, The Origins of English Individualism: The Family, Property and Social Transition (Oxford, 1978).
58. On Bryant and his circle, see Andrew Roberts, Eminent Churchillians (London, 1994), 287-322;
59. on Dawson, see Stefan Berger, "William Harbutt Dawson: The Career and Politics of an Historian of Germany," English Historical Review 116 (2001): 76-113.
60. Reba N. Soffer, "British Conservative Historiography and the Second World War," in Wende and Stuchtey, British and German Historiography, 379.
61. On Fritz Fischer and the Fischer debate, see John A. Moses, The Politics of Illusion: The Fischer Controversy in German Historiography (London, 1975);
62. Volker Berghahn, "Die Fischer-Kontroverse: 15 Jahre danach," Geschichte und Gesellschaft 6 (1980): 403-19.
63. Hellmuth Plessner, Die verspätete Nation: Über die politische Verführbarkeit bürgerlichen Geistes (Stuttgart, 1959).
64. On the new social history in West Germany generally, see Gerhard A. Ritter, The New Social History of the Federal Republic of Germany (London, 1991).
65. Nicolaus Berg, Der Holocaust und die westdeutschen Historiker: Erforschung und Erinnerung (Göttingen, 2003).
66. For a thorough discussion of Berg's important work, see http://edoc.hu-berlin.de/e_histfor/2/.
67. On the Sonderweg paradigm in German history, see Helga Grebing, Der "deutsche Sonderweg" in Europa, 1806-1945 (Stuttgart, 1986).
68. Stefan Berger, "National Paradigm and Legitimacy: Uses of Academic History Writing in the 1960s," in The Workers' and Peasants' State: Communism and Society in East Germany under Ulbricht, 1945-1971, ed. Patrick Major and Jonathan Osmond (Manchester, 2002), 244-61.
69. Jens Petersen, "Der Ort der Resistenza in Geschichte und Gegenwart Italiens," in Quellen und Forschungen aus Italienischen Archiven und Bibliotheken 72 (1992): 550-71.
70. Skeptical about the notion of the Resistance as "civic religion" in postwar Italy is Stephen Gundle, "The 'Civic Religion' of the Resistance in Post-War Italy," Modern Italy 5 (2000): 113-32.
71. Dennis Mack Smith, Italy: A Modern History (Ann Arbor, MI, 1959).
72. Bos worth, Explaining Auschwitz, 131.
73. Some of the best examples are provided in Ruggiero Romano and Corrado Vivanti, eds., Storia d'ltalia, 6 vols. (Turin, 1972-78).
74. Sergio Romano in "Podiumsdiskussion," 244;
75. an example is provided by Giovanni Spadolini, "Mito ed eredita del Risorgimento," Risorgimento 50, nos. 2/3 (1998): 353-60;
76. on the legacy of Spadolini's work, see Zeffiro Ciuffoletti, "Giovanni Spadolini e la questione della nazione italiana," Rassegna storica toscana 41, no. 1 (1995): 35-42;
77. also, more recently, Cosimo Ceccuti, "Giovanni Spadolini, Historiker des Risorgimentos und des zeitgenössischen Italiens," Jahrbuch zur Liberalismusforschung 16 (2004).
78. Robert Paxton, Vichy France: Old Guard, New Order (New York, 1972).
79. Christopher Flood and Hugo Frey, "History Writing: From the Annales to the Institut d'Historie du Temps Présent," in Currents in Contemporary French Intellectual Life, ed. Christopher Flood and Nick Hewlett (Basingstoke, 2000), 63.
80. Cited in Bosworth, Explaining Auschwitz, 109.
81. Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, 2 vols. (London, [1966] 1972);
82. on the founders' concern for overcoming the limitations of national history, see Marc Bloch, "Toward a Comparative History of European Societies," in Enterprise and Secular Change: Readings in Economic History (London, 1953).
83. Bloch's article was originally published in Revue historique in 1928.
84. François Furet, Interpreting the French Revolution (Cambridge, 1981).
85. Peter Mandler, History and National Life (London, 2002), 100-101; here also are figures for the growth in the number of history titles between 1945 and 2000.
86. A. J. P. Taylor, English History (Oxford, 1965), 600.
87. Cited in Kathleen Burk, Troublemaker: The Life and History of A. J. P. Taylor (New Haven, CT, 2000), 302.
88. E. P. Thompson, The Poverty of Theory and Other Essays (London, 1978). The literature on Thompson is, of course, legion. For a short insightful sketch,
89. see Eileen James Yeo, "E. P. Thompson: Witness against the Beast," in Historical Controversies and Historians, ed. William Lamont (London, 1998), 215-24.
90. Jim Obelkevich, "New Developments in History in the 1950s and 1960s," Contemporary British History 14, no. 4 (2000): 137.
91. Richard J. Finlay, "Controlling the Past: Scottish Historiography and Scottish Identity in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Century," Scottish Affairs 6 (1994): 127-48.
92. Christopher Harvie, Scotland and Nationalism: Scottish Society and Politics, 1707-1977 (London, 1977).
93. On Harvie, see also John Osmond, "Christopher Harvie's Vision of Scotland 2000," Planet 68 (1991): 63-67.
94. Tom Nairn, The Break-Up of Britain (London, 1977).
95. On Morgan's seminal role in modern Welsh political history, see Chris Williams, "Introduction," in The Labour Party in Wales, 1900-2000, ed. Duncan Tanner, Chris Williams, and Deian Hopkin (Cardiff, 2000), 2-12.
96. Neil Evans, "Writing the Social History of Modern Wales: Approaches, Achievements and Problems," Social History 17 (1992): 479-92.
97. Gwyn Alf Williams, When Was Wales? (London, 1979).
98. Gwyn Alf Williams, "Are Welsh Historians Putting On the Style," Planet 68 (1991): 28.
99. Dai Smith, Wales! Wales? (London, 1984).
100. Robin Okey, "Plausible Perspectives," Planet 73 (1989): 31-38.
101. Leopold Kohr, The Breakdown of Nations (London, 1957).
102. Dai Smith, "New Directions for Historiography," Planet 56 (1986): 14-25.
103. Interesting reflections on the impact of Europeanization on British historiography can be found in J. G. A. Pocock, "History and Sovereignty: The Historiographical Response to Europeanization in Two British Cultures," Journal of British Studies 31 (1992): 358-89.
104. Alan Milward, The European Rescue of the Nation State, 2nd ed. (London, 2000).
105. Some of the most important documents of the Historikerstreit can be found in English translation in Forever in the Shadow of Hitler? Original Documents of the Historikerstreit, the Controversy Concerning the Singularity of the Holocaust (Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1993);
106. see also Richard J. Evans, In Hitler's Shadow: West German Historians and the Attempt to Escape from the Nazi Past (London, 1989).
107. For details, see Stefan Berger, The Search for Normality: National Identity and Historical Consciousness in Germany since 1800 (Oxford, 1997), chap. 4.
108. Thomas Welskopp, "Identität ex negativo: Der 'deutsche Sonderweg' als Metaerzählung in der bundesrepublikanischen Geschichtswissenschaft der siebziger und achtziger Jahre," in Jarausch and Sabrow, Meistererzählung, 109-39.
109. One example among many is Wolfgang Mommsen, Nation und Geschichte: Über die Deutschen und die deutsche Frage (Munich, 1990);
110. for links between the Sonderweg debate and the Historikerstreit, see Jürgen Elvert, "Nationalsozialismus, Nationalbewußtsein und deutsche Identität," Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft 45 (1997): 47-62.
111. David Blackbourn and Geoff Eley, Mythen deutscher Geschichtsschreibung (Munich, 1980);
112. their book appeared in German first, and only subsequently did they prepare an English-language version: The Peculiarities of German History: Bourgeois Society and Politics in Nineteenth-Century Germany (Oxford, 1984).
113. See the recent reflections of David Blackbourn and Geoff Eley on their "Peculiarities" book and its legacy: "Interview with David Blackbourn and Geoff Eley," German History 22 (2004): 229-45.
114. H. Meier and W. Schmidt, eds., Erbe und Tradition in der DDR: Die Debatte der Historiker (Berlin, 1988). On the renationalization of GDR historiography in the 1980s,
115. see also Jan Herman Brinks, Die DDR-Geschichtswissenschafl auf dem Weg zur deutschen Einheit: Luther, Friedrich II und Bismarck als Paradigmen des politischen Wandels (Frankfurt, 1992).
116. Michael Stürmer, "Ein Preußen für die DDR - umstrittenes Erbe," in Geschichtswissenschaft in der DDR, vol. 2, Vor- und Frühgeschichte bis neueste Geschichte, ed. Alexander Fischer and Günther Heydemann (Berlin, 1990), 424.
117. B. Painter, "Renzo De Felice and the Historiography of Italian Fascism," American Historical Review 95 (1990): 391-405.
118. Renzo De Felice, Intervista sul fascismo (Bari, 1975),
119. translated as Fascism: An Informal Introduction to Its Theory and Practice (New Brunswick, NJ, 1977).
120. Renzo De Felice, Mussolini (Turin, 1965).
121. Giorgio Amendola, Intervista sull'antifascismo (Bari, 1976).
122. Rosario Romeo, "Nazione," in Enciclopedia del novecento, vol. 4 (Rome, 1979), 632.
123. Niccolo Zapponi, "Fascism in Italian Historiography, 1986-93: A Fading National Identity," Journal of Contemporary History 29, no. 4 (1994): 547-68;
124. the most important contributions to the debates in the 1980s are collected in J. Jacobelli, ed., Il fascismo e gli storici oggi (Bari, 1988).
125. George Ross, "Intellectuals Against the Left: The Case of France," in The Socialist Register, ed. Ralph Miliband, Leo Panitch, and John Saville (London, 1990), 201-27.
126. René Rémond, Les Droites en France (Paris, 1982).
127. Jean-François Fourny, "Après le Marxisme: Front National et histoire revisionniste," Contemporary French Civilization 13 (1989): 59-70;
128. also, Deborah Lipstadt, Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory (London, 1993).
129. Marc Ferro, Pétain (Paris, 1987).
130. Henry Rousso, Le Syndrome de Vichy (Paris, 1987).
131. Fernand Braudel, L'Identité de France, 2 vols. (Paris, 1986).
132. On Braudel's national history, see Julian Jackson, "Historians and the Nation in Contemporary France," in Berger et al., Writing National Histories, 241.
133. O. Mongin, Face au scepticisme: Les Mutations du paysage intellectuel ou l'invention de l'intellectuel democratique (Paris, 1994), 43.
134. "Über die Beziehungen zwischen Geschichte und Soziologie in Frankreich und Deutschland: Pierre Bourdieu im Gespräch mit Lutz Raphael," Geschichte und Gesellschaft 22 (1996): 67.
135. Pierre Nora, Les Lieux de mémoire, 7 vols. (Paris, 1984-93).
136. G. R. Elton, "The Historian's Social Function," Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th ser., 27 (1977): 197-211,
137. and The Future of the Past (Cambridge, 1984).
138. Corelli Barnett, The Audit of War: The Illusion and Reality of Britain as a Great Nation (London, 1986),
139. and The Lost Victory: British Dreams, British Reality, 1945-1950 (London, 1995).
140. David Cannadine, "British History: Past, Present and Future," Past and Present 116 (1987): 189-90.
141. Raphael Samuel, ed., Patriotism - the Making and Unmaking of British National Identity, 3 vols. (London, 1989).
142. Raphael Samuel, "Introduction: The 'Little Platoons,'" in Samuel, Patriotism, 2:xxxiv.
143. Raphael Samuel, Theatres of Memory, vol. 2, Island Stories: Unravelling Britain (London, 1998).
144. Stefan Berger, "The Rise and Fall of 'Critical' Historiography? Some Reflections on the Historiographical Agenda of the Left in Britain, France, and Germany at the End of the Twentieth Century," Europa: European Review of History 3, no. 2 (1996): 213-32.
145. Lutz Raphael, Geschichtswissenschaft im Zeitalter der Extreme: Theorien, Methoden, Tendenzen von 1900 bis zur Gegenwart (Munich, 2003), 215 ff.
146. Georg G. Iggers, "The 'Methodenstreit' in International Perspective: The Re-orientation of Historical Studies at the Turn from the Nineteenth to the Twentieth Century," Storia della storiografia 6 (1984): 21-32.
147. Peter Schöttler, ed., Marc Bloch: Historiker und Widerstandskämpfer (New York, 1999), 33.
148. The literature on Volksgeschichte is by now considerable. For a good overview, see Winfried Schulze and Otto Gerhard Oexle, eds., Deutsche Historiker im Nationalsozialismus (Frankfurt, 1999);
149. for Volksgeschichte in comparative perspective, see also Manfred Hettling, ed., Volksgeschichten im Europa der Zwischenkriegszeit (Göttingen, 2003).
150. The best example of this kind of structural social history is provided by Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Deutsche Gesellschaftsgeschichte, 5 vols. (Munich, 1987).
151. Peukert's career was, of course, tragically cut short by his untimely death at the age of forty, but there is more than enough evidence that committed Marxists found it institutionally more difficult to get accepted within mainstream academic circles than elsewhere in Western Europe.
152. Carlo Ginzburg, Il formaggio e i vermi (Turin, 1976);
153. Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Montaillou, village occitan de 1294 à 1324 (Paris, 1975).
154. Hans Medick, Weben und Überleben in Laichingen, 1650-1900 (Göttingen, 2001).
155. For the debates between essentialists and constructionists in national identity studies, see Anthony D. Smith, The Nation in History: Historiographical Debates about Ethnicity and Nationalism (Cambridge, 2000), 52-78.
156. Stuart Woolf, "Europe and Its Historians," Contemporary European History 12 (2003): 323-37.
157. Chris Shore, Building Europe: The Cultural Policies of European Integration (London, 2000).
158. William McNeill, Polyethnicity and National Unity in World History (Toronto, 1986);
159. Im manuel Wallerstein, The Modern World System, 3 vols. (San Diego, 1974, 1981, and 1988);
160. Linda Colley, Captives: Britain, Empire and the World, 1600-1850 (London, 2003);
161. Catherine Hall, ed., Cultures of Empire: Colonisers in Britain and the Empire in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Century: A Reader (London, 2000).
162. Mark Mazower, Inside Hitler's Greece: The Experience of Occupation, 1941-1944 (New Haven, CT, 1993);
163. Norman Naimark, The Russians in Germany: The History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949 (Boston, 1995).
164. See the topical issue "Geschichtsregionen: Concept and Critique" of the journal European Review of History 10 (2003), which was guest edited by Stefan Troebst.
165. On the Europeanization of history schoolbooks, see the contribution of Wolfgang Höpken to a roundtable, "Integrating without Remembering," at the conference "Thinking Europe" organized by the Centre for Contemporary History, Potsdam, May 6-8, 2004;
166. on the problems of a lack of national historical awareness among schoolchildren, see, among others, Keith Robbins, "National Identity and History: Past, Present, and Future," History 245 (1990): 369-87.
167. Judt, "The Past Is Another Country," 315.
168. For details, see Berger, Search for Normality, chap. 9,
169. and "Nationalism and Historiography," German History 18, no. 2 (2000): 239-59.
170. Ulrich von Hehl, "Kampf um die Deutung: Der Nationalsozialismus zwischen 'Vergangen-heitsbewältigung', Historisierungspostulat und 'neuer Unbefangenheit,'" Historisches Jahrbuch 117, no. 2 (1997): 406-36.
171. Good examples of this tendency can be found in Ralf Dahrendorf, "Die Sache mit der Nation," Merkur 44 (1990): 823-34;
172. Christian Meier, "Am Ende der alten Bundesrepublik," Merkur 48 (1994): 561-72;
173. and Jan-Werner Müller, Another Country: German Intellectuals, Unification and National Identity (New Haven, CT, 2000).
174. Heinrich August Winkler, Der lange Weg nach Westen, 2 vols. (Munich, 2000);
175. for a specific attack on postnationalism, see his "Abschied von einem deutschen Sonderweg: Wider die postnationale Nostalgie," Die neue Gesellschaft/Frankfurter Hefte 40 (1993): 633-36.
176. On the successful working through of the National Socialist past, see the upbeat assessment of William Niven, Facing the Nazi Past: United Germany and the Legacy of the Third Reich (London, 2001);
177. on the rediscovery of the discourse of victimhood, see Stefan Berger, Inventing the Nation: Germany (London, 2004), 252-56.
178. "Operation Clean Hands" revealed massive corruption on all levels of public and economic life that involved the whole of the political-governmental-administrative elite of the country.
179. Dario Biocca, "Has the Nation Died? The Debate over Italy's Identity (and Future)," Daedalus 126, no. 3 (1997): 223-39.
180. Carl Levy, "Historians and the 'First Republic,'" in Berger et al., Writing National Histories, 265-78;
181. Bruno Groppo, "Antifaschismus, Widerstand, nationale Identität in der aktuellen geschichtswissenschaftlichen und politischen Debatte," Mitteilungsblatt des Instituts zur Erforschung der europäischen Arbeiterbewegung 21 (1998): 242-57.
182. The notion of a partitocrazia was the idea that the Christian Democrats, the Communists, and the Socialists formed a cartel that undermined democracy and nurtured corruption.
183. Simone Neri Serneri, "A Past to Be Thrown Away? Politics and Resistance in the Italian Resistance," Contemporary European History 4 (1995): 367-81;
184. for staunch defenses of the legacy of the Resistance, see also Guido Quazza, "L'antifascismo nella storia italiana del novecento," Italia contemporanea 178 (1990),
185. and Nicola Tranfaglia, Un passato scomodo: Fascismo e postfascismo (Bari, 1996).
186. Claudio Pavone, La guerra civile: Saggio storico sulla moralità nella resistenza (Turin, 1991).
187. Saverio Battente, "Nation and State Building in Italy: Recent Historiographical Interpretations," Journal of Modern Italian Studies 5 (2000): 310-21,
188. Saverio Battente, Journal of Modern Italian Studies 6 (2001): 94-105. The Lega Nord is the political movement demanding greater autonomy for the area north of the Apennines, the region Lega activists call Padania.
189. See, for example, Marco Meriggi, Breve storia dell'Italia settentrionale dall'Ottocento a oggi (Rome, 1996). I am grateful to David Laven for this information.
190. Silvana Patriarca, "Italian Neopatriotism: Debating National Identity in the 1990s," Modern Italy 6 (2001): 26.
191. Renzo De Felice, Rosso e new (Roma, 1995).
192. David Rodogno, Il nuovo online mediterraneo: Le politiche di occupazione dell'Italia fascism in Europa, 1940-1943 (Torino, 2003).
193. Gabriele Turi, "Una storia italiana," Passato e presente 59 (2003): 89-96.
194. Ernesto Galli della Loggia, La morte della patria: La crisi dell'idea di natione tra resistenza, antifascismo e repubblica (Bari, 1996),
195. and L'identità italiana (Bologna, 1998).
196. On De Felice's legacy in Italy, see Bosworth, Italian Dictatorship, 20 ff.
197. Gian Enrico Rusconi, Se cessiamo di essere una nazione: Tra etnodemorazie regionali e cittadinanza europea (Bologna, 1993).
198. Patrizia Dogliani, "Un'immagine alternativa dell'Italia? L'ltalia socialista," Melanges de l'Ecole Française de Rome: Italie et Mediterranée 109, no. 1 (1997): 35-44.
199. Maurizio Viroli, Per amore della patria: Patriottismo e nazionalismo nella storia (Bari, 1995).
200. Henry Rousso and Eric Conan, Vichy, un passé qui ne passe pas (Paris, 1994);
201. Henry Rousso, Vichy: L'Événement, la mémoire, l'histoire (Paris, 2001).
202. Jean-Pierre Azéma and François Bédarida, eds., Le Régime de Vichy et les Français (Paris, 1992).
203. On July 16, 1942, French police carried out mass arrests of Jews across Vichy France.
204. He called it a "dette imprescriptible."
205. Hanna Diamond and Claire Gorrara, "French History and the Aubrac Affair," in Memory and Memorials: The Commemorative Century, ed. William Kidd and Brian Murdoch (Aldershot, 2003).
206. H. R. Kedward, "French Resistance: A Few Home Truths," in Lamont, Historical Controversies, 8.
207. Jean-Pierre Rioux, ed., La Guerre d'Algérie et les français (Paris, 1990);
208. and Jean-Pierre Rioux and Jean-François Sirinelli, eds., La Guerre d'Algérie et les intellectuels français (Paris, 1988).
209. Benjamin Stora, Histoire de la Guerre d'Algérie (Paris, 1993).
210. Gérard Noiriel, "French and Foreigners," in Nora, Realms of Memory, 1:146 and 172.
211. Steven Kaplan, Adieu '89 (Paris, 1993);
212. Pascal Ory, Une Nation pour mémoire: 1989-1939-1989: Trois jubiles en France (Paris, 1992).
213. Neil Evans, "Response to David Cannadine," Past and Present 119 (1988): 197.
214. See, in particular, Hugh Kearney, The British Isles: A History of Four Nations (Cambridge, 1989),
215. and Norman Davies, The Isles: A History (London, 1999).
216. Graeme Morton, Unionist Nationalism: Governing Urban Scotland, 1830-1860 (East Linton, 1999).
217. Murray G. T. Pittock, Celtic Identity and the British Image (Manchester, 1999).
218. See, e.g., John Davies, A History of Wales (Harmondsworth, 1993).
219. "'Thatcher hat dieses Land ruiniert:' Interview with Norman Davies," Der Spiegel 16 (2001).
220. Richard J. Finlay, "New Britain, New Scotland, New History? The Impact of Devolution on the Development of Scottish Historiography," Journal of Contemporary History 36, no. 2 (2001): 383-93.
221. David Starkey, "The English Historian's Role and the Place of History in English National Life," The Historian 71 (2001): 6-15.
222. Peter Mandler, "England, Which England?" Contemporary British History 13 (1999): 243-54.
223. Tom Nairn, "Ukania under Blair," New Left Review, n.s., 1 (2000): 100-103;
224. more generally, see his After Britain (London, 2000);
225. for a critique of Nairn's failure to come up with a viable future English identity, see J. G. A. Pocock, "Gaberlunzie's Return," New Left Review, n.s., 5 (2000): esp. 45-47.
226. Geoffrey Crossick, "And What Should They Know of England? Die vergleichende Geschichtsschreibung im heutigen Großbritannien," in Geschichte und Vergleich: Ansätze und Ergebnisse international vergleichender Geschichtsschreibung, ed. Heinz-Gerhard Haupt and Jürgen Kocka (Frankfurt, 1996), 61-76.
227. Simon Gikandi, Maps of Englishness: Writing Identity in the Culture of Colonialism (New York, 1996), 3.
228. Prasenjit Duara, Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China (Chicago, 1995), 15.
229. Homi Bhaba, ed., Nation and Narration (London, 1990),
230. and The Location of Culture (London, 1994).
231. Partha Chatterjee, Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World (Delhi, 1986).
232. Hans Magnus Enzensberger, Europe, Europe: Forays into a Continent (London, 1989).
233. Tony Judt, A Grand Illusion? An Essay on Europe (New York, 1997).
234. Paul Betts, "The Twilight of the Idols: East German Memory and Material Culture," Journal of Modern History 72 (2000): 731-65.
235. Lothar Kettenacker, ed., Ein Volk von Opfern? Die neue Debatte um den Bombenkrieg, 1940-1945 (Berlin, 2003).
236. See, for good examples, many of the contributions in Gregory Castle, ed., Postcolonial Discourses: An Anthology (Oxford, 2001).
237. Niall Ferguson, Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World (Harmondsworth, 2004).
238. Michael Jeismann, "Einführung in die neue Weltbrutalität. Zweimal 'Verbrechen der Wehrmacht' : Von der alten zur neuen Bundesrepublik," in Zeitgeschichte als Streitgeschichte: Grosse Kontroversen seit 1945, ed. Martin Sabrow, Ralph Jessen, and Klaus Große Kracht (Munich, 2003), 235.
239. Ralf Dahrendorf, "Die Zukunft des Nationalstaats," Merkur 48 (1994): 751-61.
240. Eberhard Jäckel, Frankreich in Hitlers Europa: Die deutsche Frankreichpolitik im zweiten Weltkrieg (Stuttgart, 1966).
241. For transfers in Anglo-German historiography see Peter Wende and Benedikt Stuchtey, eds., British and German Historiography, 1750-1950: Traditions, Perceptions, and Transfers (Oxford, 2000);
242. Stefan Berger, Peter Lambert, and Peter Schumann, eds., Historikerdialoge: Geschichte, Mythos and Gedächtnis im deutsch-britischen kulturellen Austausch, 1750-2000 (Göttingen, 2002).
243. Peter Alter, ed., Out of the Third Reich: Refugee Historians in Post-War Britain (London, 1998).
244. I am grateful to my colleague Gareth Williams for pointing this out to me.
245. Elie Halévy, The Growth of Philosophical Radicalism, 3 vols. (London, 1928; first published in French in three volumes between 1901 and 1904);
246. also A History of the English People in the Nineteenth Century, 5 vols. (London, 1924-34; first published in French between 1912 and 1932).