The role of whole pelvic radiotherapy in locally advanced prostate cancer

Radiotherapy and Oncology

Volumn 79, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 1-14

  Dirix, Piet ^a   Haustermans, Karin ^a   Junius, Sara ^a   Withers, Rodney ^b   Oyen, Raymond ^c   Van Poppel, Hendrik ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY HOSPITALS LEUVEN   (Belgium)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c Department of Radiology ^*

Author keywords

Pelvic radiation; Prostate cancer; Radiation therapy

Indexed keywords

CARBON 11; CHOLINE DERIVATIVE; CONTRAST MEDIUM; FLUORINE 18; FLUORODEOXYGLUCOSE F 18; IRON OXIDE; PROSTATE SPECIFIC ANTIGEN;

ADVANCED CANCER; CANCER CONTROL; CANCER DIAGNOSIS; CANCER HORMONE THERAPY; CANCER INCIDENCE; CANCER RADIOTHERAPY; CANCER STAGING; CANCER SURGERY; CANCER SURVIVAL; CANCER THERAPY; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMPUTER ASSISTED RADIOTHERAPY; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; EXTERNAL BEAM RADIOTHERAPY; HUMAN; INTENSITY MODULATED RADIATION THERAPY; INTERMETHOD COMPARISON; LYMPH NODE; LYMPH NODE DISSECTION; LYMPH NODE METASTASIS; MEDICAL LITERATURE; NONHUMAN; PARTICLE SIZE; PELVIS LYMPHADENECTOMY; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROSTATE ADENOCARCINOMA; PROSTATE CANCER; PROSTATE SURGERY; PROSTATECTOMY; RADIATION DOSE; RADIATION INJURY; RETROSPECTIVE STUDY; REVIEW; STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE; WHOLE PELVIC RADIOTHERAPY;

ADENOCARCINOMA; CLINICAL TRIALS; HUMANS; MALE; NEOPLASM STAGING; PELVIS; PROSPECTIVE STUDIES; PROSTATE-SPECIFIC ANTIGEN; PROSTATIC NEOPLASMS; RADIOTHERAPY; RADIOTHERAPY PLANNING, COMPUTER-ASSISTED; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS; RETROSPECTIVE STUDIES; SURVIVAL ANALYSIS; TREATMENT OUTCOME; TUMOR MARKERS, BIOLOGICAL;

EID: 33646494332     PISSN: 01678140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.radonc.2006.03.011     Document Type: Review

References (123)

1. Abuzallouf S., Dayes I., and Lukka H. Baseline staging of newly diagnosed prostate cancer: a summary of the literature. J Urol 171 (2004) 2122-2127
2. Adams E.J., Convery D.J., Cosgrove V.P., et al. Clinical implementation of dynamic and step-and-shoot IMRT to treat prostate cancer with high risk of pelvic lymph node involvement. Radiother Oncol 70 (2004) 1-10
3. Amling C.L., Blute M.L., Bergstralh E.J., et al. Long-term hazard of progression after radical prostatectomy for clinically localised prostate cancer: continued risk of biochemical failure after five years. J Urol 164 (2000) 101
4. Aristizabal S.A., Steinbronn D., and Heusinkveld R.S. External beam radiotherapy in cancer of the prostate. The university of Arizona experience. Radiother Oncol 1 (1984) 309-315
5. Asbell S.O., Krall J.M., Pipelich M.V., et al. Elective pelvic irradiation in stage A2, B carcinoma of the prostate: analysis of RTOG 77-06. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 15 (1988) 1307-1316
6. Asbell S.O., Martz K.L., Shin K.H., et al. Impact of surgical staging in evaluating the radiotherapeutic outcome in RTOP 77-06, a phase III study for T1bN0M0 (A2) and T2N0M0 (B) prostate carcinoma. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 40 (1998) 769-782
7. Bader P., Burkhard F.C., Markwalder R., et al. Is a limited lymph node dissection an adequate staging procedure for prostate cancer?. J Urol 168 (2002) 514-518
8. Bagshaw M.A., Ray G.R., Pistenma D.A., et al. External beam radiation therapy of primary carcinoma of the prostate. Cancer 36 (1975) 723-728
9. Bagshaw M.A., Pistenma D.A., Ray G.R., et al. Evaluation of extended field radiotherapy for prostatic neoplasms. 1976 progress report. Cancer Treat Rep 61 (1977) 297-306
10. Bagshaw M.A. Radiotherapeutic treatment of prostatic carcinoma with pelvic node involvement. Urol Clin North Am 11 (1984) 297-304
11. Bartsch G., Horninger W., Klocker H., et al. Prostate cancer mortality after introduction of prostate-specific antigen mass screening in the federal state of Tyrol, Austria. Urology 58 (2001) 417-424
12. Baum C., Alber M., Birkner M., and Nusslin F. Robust treatment planning for intensity modulated radiotherapy of prostate cancer based on coverage probabilities. Radiother Oncol 75 (2005) 307-310
13. Bedford J.L., henrys A.J., Dearnaley D.P., and Khoo V.S. Treatment planning evaluation of non-coplanar techniques for conformal radiotherapy of the prostate. Radiother Oncol 75 (2005) 287-292
14. Boehmer D., Bohsung J., Eichwurzel I., Moys A., and Budach V. Clinical and physical quality assurance for intensity modulated radiotherapy of prostate cancer. Radiother Oncol 71 (2004) 319-325
15. Bolla M., Gonzalez D., Warde P., et al. Improved survival in patients with locally advanced prostate cancer treated with radiotherapy and goserelin. N Engl J Med 295 (1997) 295-300
16. Bos L.J., van der Geer J., van Herk M., Mijnheer B.J., Lebesque J.V., and Damen E.M. The sensitivity of dose distributions for organ motion and set-up uncertainties in prostate IMRT. Radiother Oncol 76 (2005) 18-26
17. Bourne R.G., Kearsley J.H., Grove W.D., et al. The relationship between early and late gastrointestinal complications of radiation therapy for carcinoma of the cervix. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 9 (1983) 1445-1450
18. Brahme A. Optimisation of stationery and moving beam radiation therapy techniques. Optimisation of stationery. Radiother Oncol 12 (1988) 129-140
19. Budhraja S.N., and Anderson J.C. An assessment of the volume of radiotherapy in the management of cancer of the prostate. Br J Urol 36 (1960) 535-540
20. Burcombe R.J., Ostler P.J., Ayoub A.W., et al. The role of staging CT scans in the treatment of prostate cancer: a retrospective audit. Clin Oncol 12 (2000) 32-35
21. Cavey M.L., Bayouth J.E., Colman M., et al. IMRT to escalate the dose to the prostate while treating the pelvic nodes. Strahlenther Onkol 181 (2005) 431-441
22. Christie D., Denham J., Steigler A., et al. Delayed rectal and urinary symptomatology in patients treated for prostate cancer by radiotherapy with or without short term neo-adjuvant androgen deprivation. Radiother Oncol 77 (2005) 117-125
23. Clark T., Parekh D.J., Cookson M.S., et al. Randomized prospective evaluation of extended versus limited lymph node dissection in patients with clinically localized prostate cancer. J Urol 169 (2003) 145-148
24. Corvin S, Schilling D, Eichhorn K, et al. Laparoscopic sentinel lymph node dissection-a novel technique for the staging of prostate cancer. Eur Urol 2006;49:280-5.
25. Cozzarini C., Fellin G., Foppiano F., et al. Fitting late rectal bleeding data using different NTCP models: results from an Italian multi-centric study (AIROPROS0101). Radiother Oncol 73 (2004) 21-32
26. Danella J.F., deKernion J.B., Smith R.B., et al. The contemporary incidence of lymph node metastases in prostate cancer: implications for laparoscopic lymph node dissection. J Urol 149 (1993) 488-1491
27. De Jong I.J., Pruim J., Elsinga P.H., et al. Pre-operative staging of pelvic lymph nodes in prostate cancer by 11C-choline PET. J Nucl Med 44 (2003) 331-335
28. Del Regato J.A. Radiotherapy in the conservative treatment of operable and locally inoperable carcinoma of the prostate. Radiology 88 (1967) 761-766
29. Edelstein R.A., Zietman A.L., de las Morenas A., et al. Implications of prostate micrometastases in pelvic lymph nodes: an archival tissue study. Urology 47 (1996) 370-375
30. Effert P.J., Bares R., Handt S., et al. Metabolic imaging of untreated prostate cancer by positron emission tomography with 18fluorine-labeled deoxyglucose. J Urol 155 (1996) 994-998
31. Emami B., Lyman J., Brown A., et al. Tolerance of normal tissue to therapeutic irradiation. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 21 (1991) 109-122
32. Engelbrecht M.R., Jager G.J., Laheij R.J., et al. Local staging of prostate cancer using magnetic resonance imaging: a meta-analysis. Eur Radiol 12 (2002) 2294-2302
33. Ferrari CA, Stone NN, Goa M, et al. Prospective analysis of prostate-specific markers in pelvic lymph nodes of patients with high-risk prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1997;89:1498-504.
34. Fokdal L., Honore H., Hoyer M., and von der Maase H. Dose-volume histograms associated to long-term colorectal functions in patients receiving pelvic radiotherapy. Radiother Oncol 74 (2005) 203-210
35. Foreman J.D., Lee Y., Roberson P., et al. Advantages of CT and beam's eye view display to confirm the accuracy of pelvic lymph node irradiation in carcinoma of the prostate. Radiology 186 (1993) 889-892
36. Freeman J.A., Esrig D., Grossfeld G.D., et al. Incidence of occult lymph node metastases in pathological stage C (pT3N0) prostate cancer. J Urol 154 (1995) 474-478
37. Geinitz H., Zimmermann F.B., Thamm R., et al. 3D conformal radiation therapy for prostate cancer in elderly patients. Radiother Oncol 76 (2005) 27-34
38. Gleason D.F., Mellinger G.T., and the Veterans Administration Cooperative Urological Research Group. Prediction of prognosis for prosatic adenocarcinoma by combined histological grading and clinical staging. J Urol 111 (1974) 58-64
39. Golimbu M., Morales P., Al-Askari S., et al. Extended pelvic lymphadenectomy for prostatic cancer. J Urol 121 (1979) 617-620
40. In: Greene F.L., Page D.L., Fleming I.D., et al. (Eds). AJCC (American Joint Committee on Cancer)-UICC (Union International Contre Cancer) cancer staging manual. 6th ed (2002), Springer, New York
41. Hamilton A.S., Stanford J.L., Gilliland F.D., et al. Health outcomes after external-beam radiation therapy for clinically localized prostate cancer: results from the prostate cancer outcomes study. J Clin Oncol 19 (2001) 2526-2571
42. Hanks G., Lu J., Machtay M., et al. RTOG protocol 92-02: a phase III trial of the use of long-term total androgen suppression following neo-adjuvant cytoreduction and radiotherapy in locally advanced carcinoma of the prostate. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 48 (2000) 112
43. Harisinghani M.G., Barentsz J.O., Hahn P.R., et al. Non-invasive detection of clinically occult lymph node metastasis in prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 348 (2003) 2491-2499
44. Heidenreich A., Varga Z., and Von Knobloch R. Extended pelvic lymphadenectomy in patients undergoing radical prostatectomy: high incidence of lymph node metastasis. J Urol 167 (2002) 1681-1686
45. Hill D.R., Crews Jr. Q.E., and Walsh P.C. Prostate carcinoma: radiation treatment of the primary and regional lymphatics. Cancer 34 (1974) 156-160
46. Hoogeman M.S., van Herk M., de Bois J., and Lebesque J.V. Strategies to reduce the systematic error due to tumor and rectum motion in radiotherapy of prostate cancer. Radiother Oncol 74 (2005) 177-185
47. Hsing A.W., Tsao L., and Devesa S.S. International trends and patterns of prostate cancer incidence and mortality. Int J Cancer 85 (2000) 60-67
48. Jacob R., Hanlon A.L., Horwitz E.M., et al. Role of prostate dose escalation in patients with greater than 15% risk of pelvic lymph node involvement. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 61 (2005) 695-701
49. Johnstone P.A., Riffenburgh R., Saunders E.L., et al. Grading inaccuracies in diagnostic biopsies revealing prostatic adenocarcinoma; implications for definitive radiation therapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 32 (1995) 479-482
50. Karlsdottir A., Johannessen D.C., Muren L.P., et al. Acute morbidity related to treated volume during 3D-conformal radiation therapy for prostate cancer. Radiother Oncol 71 (2004) 43-53
51. Kinsella T.J., and Bloomer W.D. Tolerance of the intestine to radiation therapy. Surg Gynaecol Obstet 151 (1980) 273-284
52. Koper P.C., Jansen P., van Putten W., et al. Gastro-intestinal and genito-urinary morbidity after 3D conformal radiotherapy of prostate cancer: observations of a randomized trial. Radiother Oncol 73 (2004) 1-9
53. Kupelian P., Kuban D., Thames H., et al. Improved biochemical relapse-free survival with increased external radiation dose in patients with localized prostate cancer: the combined experience of nine institutions in patients treated in and 1995. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 61 (2005) 415-419
54. Lawton C.A., Winter K., Murray K., et al. Updated results of the phase III radiation oncology group (RTOG) Trial 85-31 evaluating the potential benefit of androgen suppression following standard therapy for unfavourable prognosis carcinoma of the prostate. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 49 (2001) 937-946
55. Lee N., Newhouse J.H., Olsson C.A., et al. Which patients with newly diagnosed prostate cancer need a CT scan of the abdomen and pelvis? An analysis of 588 patients. Urology 54 (1999) 490-494
56. Lee Y.K., Bollet M., Charles-Edwards G., et al. Radiotherapy treatment planning of prostate cancer using magnetic resonance imaging alone. Radiother Oncol 66 (2003) 203-216
57. Letschert J.G.J. The prevention of radiation-induced small bowel complications. Eur J Cancer 31 (1995) 1361-1365
58. Lichtenstein P., Holm N.V., Verkasalo P.K., et al. Environmental and heritable factors in the causation of cancer-analyses of cohorts of twins from Sweden, Denmark and Finland. N Engl J Med 343 (2000) 78-85
59. Lim A.J., Brandon A.H., Fiedler J., et al. Quality of life: radical prostatectomy versus radiation therapy for prostate cancer. J Urol 154 (1995) 1420-1425
60. Litwin M.S., Hays R.D., Fink A., et al. Quality-of-life outcomes in men treated for localized prostate cancer. J Am Med Assoc 273 (1995) 129-135
61. Liu L., Glicksman A.S., Coachman N., et al. Low acute gastrointestinal and genitourinary toxicities in whole pelvic irradiation of prostate cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 38 (1997) 65-71
62. Liu M., Pickles T., Berthelet E., et al. Urinary incontinence in prostate cancer patients treated with external beam radiotherapy. Radiother Oncol 74 (2005) 197-201
63. Ludgate C.M., Bishop D.C., Pai H., et al. Neoadjuvant hormone therapy and external-beam radiation for localized high-risk prostate cancer: the importance of PSA nadir before radiation. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 62 (2005) 1309-1315
64. Mai S.K., Fleckenstein K., Lohr F., et al. Management of small bowel interferences in primary radiotherapy of prostate cancer. Radiother Oncol 75 (2005) 366-367
65. Mameghan H., Fisher R., Mameghan J., et al. Bowel complications after radiotherapy for carcinoma of the prostate: the volume effect. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 18 (1990) 315-320
66. Mayles W.P., Moore A.R., Aird E.G., et al. Questionnaire based quality assurance for the RTO1 trial of dose escalation in conformal radiotherapy for prostate cancer. Radiother Oncol 73 (2004) 199-207
67. McGowan D.G. The value of extended field radiation therapy in carcinoma of the prostate. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 7 (1981) 1333-1339
68. McLaughlin A.P., Saltzstein S.L., McCullough D.L., et al. Prostatic carcinoma: incidence and location of unsuspected lymphatic metastasis. J Urol 115 (1976) 89-94
69. Medica M., Giglio M., Germinale F., et al. Roach's mathematical equations in predicting pathological stage in men with clinically localised prostate cancer. Tumori 87 (2001) 130-133
70. Miles E.A., Clark C.H., Urbano M.T., et al. The impact of introducing intensity modulated radiotherapy into routine clinical practice. Radiother Oncol 77 (2005) 241-246
71. Muren L.P., Ekerold R., Kvinnsland Y., Karlsdottir A., and Dahl O. On the use of margins for geometrical uncertainties around the rectum in radiotherapy planning. Radiother Oncol 70 (2004) 11-19
72. Murphy M., Johnston C., Whelan P., et al. Changing trends in prostatic cancer. Br J Urol Int 83 (1999) 786-791
73. Nichol A., Chung P., Lockwood G., et al. A phase II study of localized prostate cancer treated to 75.6 Gy with 3D conformal radiotherapy. Radiother Oncol 76 (2005) 11-17
74. Nutting C.M., Convery D.J., Cosgrove V.P., et al. Reduction of small and large bowel irradiation using an optimised intensity-modulated pelvic radiotherapy technique in patients with prostate cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 48 (2000) 649-656
75. Overgaard M., Hansen P.S., Overgaard J., et al. Postoperative radiotherapy in high-risk premenopausal women with breast cancer who receive adjuvant chemotherapy. N Engl J Med 337 (1997) 949-955
76. Pan C.C., Kim K.Y., Taylor J.M., et al. Influence of 3D-CRT pelvic irradiation on outcome in prostate cancer treated with external beam radiotherapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 53 (2002) 1139-1145
77. Pannek J., and Partin A.W. The role of PSA and percent free PSA for staging and prognosis prediction in clinically localized prostate cancer. Semin Urol Oncol 16 (1998) 100-105
78. Parkin D.M. Global cancer statistics in the year 2000. Lancet Oncol 2 (2001) 533-543
79. Partin A.W., Hanks G.E., Klein E.A., et al. Prostate-specific antigen as a marker of disease activity in prostate cancer. Oncology Huntingt 16 (2002) 1024-1030
80. Partin A.W., Yoo J., Carter B., et al. The use of prostate specific antigen, clinical stage and Gleason score to predict pathological stage in men with localised prostate cancer. J Urol 150 (1993) 110-114
81. Partin A.W., Kattan M.W., Subong E.N., et al. Combination of prostate specific antigen, clinical stage and Gleason score to predict pathological stage in men with localized prostate cancer. A multi-institutional update. J Am Med Assoc 277 (1997) 1445-1451
82. Partin A.W., Mangold L.A., Lamm D.A., et al. Contemporary update of prostate cancer staging nomograms (parting tables) for the new millennium. Urology 58 (2001) 843-848
83. Perez CA. Prostate. In: Perez CA, Brady LW, editors. Principles and practice of Radiation Oncology. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott-Raven; 1997. p. 1583-694.
84. Perez C.A., Lee H.K., Georgiou A., et al. Technical factors affecting morbidity in definitive irradiation for localized carcinoma of the prostate. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 28 (1994) 811-819
85. Perez C.A., Michalski J., Brown K.C., et al. Non randomised evaluation of pelvic lymph node irradiation in localised carcinoma of the prostate. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 36 (1996) 573-584
86. Petros J.A., and Catalona W.J. Lower incidence of unsuspected lymph node metastases in 521 consecutive patients with clinically localised prostate cancer. J Urol 147 (1992) 1574-1575
87. Post P.N., Kil P.J.M., Schapers R.F.M., et al. Trends in incidence and mortality rates for prostate cancer before and after prostate-specific antigen introduction. A registry-based study in south-eastern Netherlands, 1971-1995. Eur J Cancer 34 (1998) 705-709
88. Pound C.R., Partin A.W., Epstein J.I., et al. Prostate-specific antigen after radical retropubic prostatectomy. Patterns of recurrence and cancer control. Urol Clin North Am 24 (1997) 395-406
89. Pipelich M.V., Krall J.M., Johnson R.J., et al. Extended field (peri-aortic) irradiation in carcinoma of the prostate-analysis of RTOG 75-06. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 12 (1986) 345-351
90. Pipelich M.V., Winter K., John M.J., et al. Phase III RTOG trial 86-10 of androgen deprivation adjuvant to definitive radiotherapy in locally advanced carcinoma of the prostate. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 50 (2001) 1234-1252
91. Ploysongsang S.S., Aron B.S., and Shehata W.M. Radiation therapy in prostate cancer: whole pelvis with prostate boost or small field to prostate?. Urology 40 (1991) 18-26
92. Pollack A., Zagars G.K., Starkschall G., et al. Prostate cancer radiation dose response: results of the M.D. Anderson phase III randomised trial. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 53 (2002) 1097-1105
93. Potosky A.L., Davis W.W., Hoffman R.M., et al. Five-year outcome after prostatectomy or radiotherapy for prostate cancer: the prostate cancer outcomes study. J Natl Cancer Inst 96 (2004) 1358-1367
94. Rangala N., Cox J.D., Byhardt R.W., et al. Local control and survival after external irradiation for adenocarcinoma of the prostate. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 8 (1982) 1909-1914
95. Rasp G.M., Pisansky T.M., Haddock M.G., et al. Elective pelvic nodal irradiation in patients with clinically localized prostate cancer at high risk for pelvic nodal involvement. Int J Radiat Biol Phys 36 (1996) S245
96. Roach M., Marquez C., You H., et al. Predicting the risk of lymph node involvement using the pre-treatment prostate specific antigen and Gleason score in men with clinically localised prostate cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 28 (1993) 33-37
97. Roach M., De Silvio C., Lawton V., et al. Phase III trial comparing whole-pelvic versus prostate only radiotherapy and neo-adjuvant versus adjuvant combined androgen suppression: RTOG 94 - 13. J Clin Oncol 21 (2003) 1904-1911
98. Roach M., DeSilvio M., Thomas C.R., et al. Progression-free survival (PFS) after whole-pelvic (WP) vs. mini-pelvic (MP) or prostate only (PO) radiotherapy (RT): a subset analysis of RTOG 94-13, a phase III prospective randomised trial using neoadjuvant an concurrent hormone therapy (N&CHT). Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 60 (2004) S264-S265
99. Rosen E., Cassady J.R., Connolly J., et al. Radiotherapy for prostate carcinoma: the JCRT experience (1968-1978). II. Factors related to tumour control and complications. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 11 (1985) 725-730
100. Rudat V., Schraube P., Oetzel D., et al. Combined error of patient positioning variability and prostate motion uncertainty in 3D conformal radiotherapy of localized prostate cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 35 (1996) 1027-1034
101. Sanguineti G., Cavey M.L., Endres E.J., et al. Is IMRT needed to spare the rectum when pelvic lymph nodes are part of the initial treatment volume for prostate cancer?. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 64 (2006) 151-160
102. Schellhammer P.F., Jordan G.H., el-Mahdi A.M., et al. Pelvic complications after interstitial and external beam irradiation of urologic and gynaecologic malignancy. World J Surg 10 (1986) 259-268
103. Schulman C.C., Ekane S., and Zlotta A.R. Nutrition and prostate cancer: evidence or suspicion. Urology 58 (2001) 318-334
104. Schwarz M., Lebesque J.V., Mijnheer B.J., and Damen E.M. Sensitivity of treatment plan optimisation for prostate cancer using the equivalent uniform dose (EUD) with respect to the rectal wall volume parameter. Radiother Oncol 73 (2004) 209-218
105. Seaward S.A., Weinberg V., Lewis P., et al. Improved freedom from PSA failure with whole pelvic irradiation for high-risk prostate cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 42 (1998) 1055-1062
106. Seaward S.A., Weinberg V., Lewis P., et al. Identification of a high-risk clinically localised prostate cancer subgroup receiving maximum benefit from whole-pelvic irradiation. Cancer J Sci Am 4 (1998) 370-377
107. Spapen S.J., Damhuis R.A., and Kirkels W.J. Trends in the curative treatment of localized prostate cancer after the introduction of prostate-specific antigen: data from the Rotterdam cancer registry. Br J Urol Int 85 (2000) 474-480
108. Staffurth J., Deamaley D., McNair H., et al. Early results of a phase I trial of pelvic nodal irradiation in prostate cancer with intensity modulated radiotherapy (IMRT). Radiother Oncol 64 (2002) S284
109. Stockbine H.F., Hancock J.E., and Fletcher G.H. Complications in 831 patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the intact uterine cervix treated with 3000 rad or more whole pelvic irradiation. Am J Roentgenol 108 (1970) 304-393
110. Tait D.M., Nahum A.E., Meyer L.M., et al. Acute toxicity in pelvic radiotherapy; a randomised trial of conformal versus conventional treatment. Radiother Oncol 42 (1997) 121-136
111. Ten Haken R.K., Forman J.D., Heimburger D.K., et al. Treatment planning issues related to prostate movement in response to differential filling of the rectum and bladder. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 20 (1991) 1317-1324
112. Vaarkamp J., Adams E.J., Warrington A.P., and Dearnaley D.P. A comparison of forward and inverse planned conformal, multi segment and intensity modulated radiotherapy for the treatment of prostate and pelvic nodes. Radiother Oncol 73 (2004) 65-72
113. Varenhorst E., Garmo H., Holmberg L., et al. The National Prostate Cancer register in Sweden 1998: trends in incidence, treatment and survival. Scand J Urol Nephrol 39 (2005) 117-123
114. Vargas C., Galalae R., Demanes J., et al. Lack of benefit of pelvic radiation in prostate cancer patients with a high risk of (+) pelvic LN. Radiother Oncol 73 (2004) S79
115. Vargas C.E., Galalae R., Demanes J., et al. Lack of benefit of pelvic radiation in prostate cancer patients with a high risk of positive pelvic lymph nodes treated with high-dose radiation. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 63 (2005) 1474-1482
116. Villiers G.M., Verstraete K.L., DeNeve W.J., et al. Magnetic resonance imaging anatomy of the prostate and periprostatic area: a guide for radiotherapists. Radiother Oncol 76 (2005) 99-106
117. Wawroschek F., Hamm M., Weckermann D., et al. Lymph node staging in clinically localized prostate cancer. Urol Int 71 (2003) 129-135
118. Withers H.R., Peters L.J., and Taylor J.M. Dose-response relationship for radiation therapy of subclinical disease. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 31 (1995) 353-359
119. Wu V.W., Kwong D.L., and Sham J.S. Target dose conformity in 3-dimensional conformal radiotherapy and intensity modulated radiotherapy. Radiother Oncol 71 (2004) 201-206
120. Zagars G.K., von Eschenbach A.C., Juhnson D.E., et al. Stage C adenocarcinoma of the prostate. An analysis of 551 patients treated with external beam radiation. Cancer 60 (1987) 1489-1499
121. Zagars G.K., von Eschenbach A.C., Johnson D.E., et al. The role of radiation therapy in stages A2 and B adenocarcinoma of the prostate. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 14 (1988) 701-709
122. Zelefsky M.J., Moughan J., Owen J., et al. Changing trends in national practice for external beam radiotherapy for clinically localized prostate cancer: patterns of care survey for prostate cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 59 (2004) 1053-1062
123. Zellars R.C., Roberson P.L., Strawderman M., et al. Prostate position late in the course of external beam therapy: patterns and predictors. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 47 (2000) 655-660