Preservation of autochthonous shell beds by positive feedback between increased hardpart-input rates and increased sedimentation rates

Journal of Geology

Volumn 114, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 287-312

  Tomašových, Adam ^a,b   Fürsich, Franz T ^a   Wilmsen, Markus ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WÜRZBURG   (Germany)

^b INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY   (Slovakia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AUTOCHTHON; BRACHIOPOD; JURASSIC; SEDIMENTATION RATE; SHELL BED;

ANIMALIA; BRACHIOPODA; OSTREIDAE;

EID: 33646400704     PISSN: 00221376     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/501220     Document Type: Article

References (121)

1. Abbott, S. T. 1997. Mid-cycle condensed shellbeds from mid-Pleistocene cyclothems, New Zealand: implications for sequence architecture. Sedimentology 44: 805-824.
2. Abbott, S. T. 1998. Trasgressive system tracts and onlap shellbeds from mid-Pleistocene sequences, Wanganui Basin, New Zealand. J. Sediment. Res. 68:253-268.
3. Albrecht, A. S. 1998. Soft bottom versus hard rock: community ecology of macroalgae on intertidal mussel beds in the Wadden Sea. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 229: 85-109.
4. Allmon, W. D. 1993. Age, environment and mode of deposition of the densely fossiliferous Pinecrest Sand (Pliocene of Florida): implications for the role of biological productivity in shell bed formation. Palaios 8: 183-201.
5. Allmon, W. D.; Spizuco, M. P.; and Jones, D. S. 1995. Taphonomy and paleoenvironment of two turritellid-gastropod-rich beds, Pliocene of Florida. Lethaia 28: 75-83.
6. Alméras, Y. 1993. The Liassic brachiopod zones of the Middle-Atlas, Morocco: comparison with the French North Tethyan zonation. Newsl. Stratigr. 29:125-136.
7. Alméras, Y., and Elmi, S. 1993. Palaeogeography, physiography, palaeoenvironments and brachiopod communities: example of the Liassic brachiopods in the Western Tethys. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 100:95-108.
8. Andersen, T. J. 2001. Seasonal variation in erodibility of two temperate, microtidal mudflats. Estuarine Coastal Shelf Sci. 53:1-12.
9. Arakawa, K. Y. 1970. Scatological studies of the Bivalvia (Mollusca). Adv. Mar. Biol. 8:307-436.
10. Arboleya, M. L.; Teixell, A.; Charroud, M.; and Julivert, M. 2004. A structural transect through the High and Middle Atlas of Morocco. J. Afr. Earth Sci. 39:319-327.
11. Beauchamp, W.; Allmendinger, R. W.; Barazangi, M.; Demnati, A.; El Alji, M.; and Dahmani, M. 1999. Inversion tectonics and the evolution of the High Atlas Mountains, Morocco, based on a geological-geophysical transect. Tectonics 18:163-184.
12. Beckvar, N., and Kidwell, S. M. 1988. Hiatal shell concentrations, sequence analysis, and sealevel history of a Pleistocene coastal alluvial fan, Punta Chueca, Sonora. Lethaia 21:257-270.
13. Best, M. M. R., and Kidwell, S. M. 2000. Bivalve taphonomy in tropical mixed siliciclastic-carbonate settings. I. Environmental variation in shell condition. Paleobiology 26:80-102.
14. Boyajian, G. E., and Thayer, C. W. 1995. Clam calamity: a recent supratidal storm-deposit as an analog for fossil shell beds. Palaios 10:484-489.
15. Brett, C. E. 1991. Organism-sediment relationships in Silurian marine environments. Spec. Pap. Palaeontol. 44:301-344.
16. Brett, C. E. 1995. Sequence stratigraphy, biostratigraphy, and taphonomy in shallow marine environments. Palaios 10:597-616.
17. Brett, C. E. 1998. Sequence stratigraphy, paleoecology, and evolution: biotic clues and responses to sea-level fluctuations. Palaios 13:241-262.
18. Brookfield, M. T. 1973. The palaeoenvironment of the Jurassic Abbotsbury Ironstone (Upper Jurassic) of Dorset. Palaeontology 16:261-274.
19. Carannante, G.; Ruberti, D.; and Sirna, M. 2000. Upper Cretaceous ramp limestones from the Sorrento Peninsula (southern Apennines, Italy): micro- and macrofossil associations and their significance in the depositional sequences. Sediment. Geol. 132:89-123.
20. Carroll, M.; Kowalewski, M.; Simões, M. G.; and Goodfriend, G. A. 2003. Quantitative estimates of time-averaging in terebratulid brachiopod shell accumulations from a modern tropical shelf. Paleobiology 29: 381-402.
21. Christensen, P. B.; Glud, R. N.; Dalsgaard, T.; and Gillespie, P. 2003. Impacts of longline mussel farming on oxygen and nitrogen dynamics and biological communities of coastal sediments. Aquaculture 218:567-588.
22. Cohen, B. L. 2005. Not armour, but biomechanics, ecological opportunity and increased fecundity as keys to the origin and expansion of the mineralized benthic metazoan fauna. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 85:483-490.
23. Colo, G. 1961. Contribution à l'étude du Jurassique du Moyen-Atlas septentrional. Notes Mem. Serv. Geol. Maroc 139:1-226.
24. Commito, J. A., and Dankers, N. M. J. A. 2000. Dynamics of spatial and temporal complexity in European and North American soft-bottom mussel beds. In Reise, K., ed. Ecological comparisons of sedimentary shores. Ecol. Stud. 151:39-59.
25. Crooks, J. A., and Khim, H. S. 1999. Architectural vs. biological effects of a babitat-altering, exotic mussel, Musculista senhousia. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 240:53-75.
26. Davies, D. J.; Powell, E. N.; and Stanton, R. J., Jr. 1989. Relative rates of shell dissolution and net sediment accumulation - a commentary: can shell beds form by the gradual accumulation of biogenic debris on the sea floor? Lethaia 22:207-212.
27. del Río, C. J.; Martínez, S. A.; and Scasso, R. A. 2001. Nature and origin of spectacular marine Miocene shell beds of northeastern Patagonia (Argentina): paleoecological and bathymetric significance. Palaios 16:3-25.
28. Dubar, G. 1942. Étude paléontologique sur le Lias du Maroc: Brachiopodes, Térébratules et Zeilléries multiplissées. Notes Mem. Serv. Geol. Maroc 57:1-104.
29. Evans, I., and Kendall, C. G. S. C. 1977. An interpretation of the depositional setting of some deep-water Jurassic carbonates of the Central High Atlas Mountains, Morocco. SEPM Spec. Publ. 25:249-261.
30. Flessa, K. W.; Cutler, A. H.; and Meldahl, K. H. 1993. Time and taphonomy: quantitative estimates of time-averaging and stratigraphic disorder in a shallow marine habitat. Paleobiology 19:266-286.
31. Fürsich, F. T. 1980. Preserved life positions of some Jurassic bivalves. Palaeontol. Z. 54:289-300.
32. Fürsich, F. T., and Hurst, J. M. 1981. Autecology of the Silurian brachiopod Sphaerirhynchia wilsoni (J. Sowerby, 1816). J. Paleontol. 55:805-809.
33. Fürsich, F. T.; Oschmann, W.; Jaitly, A. K.; and Singh, I. B. 1991. Faunal response to transgressive-regressive cycles: example from the Jurassic of western India. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 85:149-159.
34. Fürsich, F. T., and Pandey, D. K. 2003. Sequence stratigraphic significance of sedimentary cycles and shell concentrations in the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous of Kachchh, western India. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 193:285-309.
35. Garcia, J.-P., and Dromart, G. 1997. The validity of two biostratigraphic approaches in sequence stratigraphic correlations: brachiopod zones and marker-beds in the Jurassic. Sediment. Geol. 114:55-79.
36. Giles, H., and Pilditch, C. A. 2004. Effects of diet on sinking rates and erosion thresholds of mussel Perna canaliculus biodeposits. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 282:205-219.
37. Gili, E.; Masse, J.-P.; and Skelton, P. W. 1995. Rudists as gregarious sediment-dwellers, not reef-builders, on Cretaceous carbonate platforms. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 118:245-267.
38. Graf, G., and Rosenberg, R. 1997. Bioresuspension and biodeposition: a review. J. Mar. Syst. 11:269-278.
39. Gutiérrez, J., and Iribarne, O. 1999. Role of Holocene beds of the stout razor clam Tagelus plebeius in structuring present benthic communities. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 185:213-228.
40. Gutiérrez, J.; Jones, C. G.; Strayer, D. L.; and Iribarne, O. O. 2003. Mollusks as ecosystem engineers: the role of shell production in aquatic habitats. Oikos 101:79-90.
41. Hagdorn, H., and Mundlos, R. 1982. Autochthonschille im Oberen Muschelkalk (Mitteltrias) Südwest-deutschlands. Neues Jahrb. Geol. Palaeontol. Abh. 162:332-351.
42. Hartstein, N. D., and Rowden, A. A. 2004. Effect of biodeposits from mussel culture on macroinvertebrate assemblages at sites of different hydrodynamic regime. Mar. Environ. Res. 57:339-357.
43. Haven, D. S., and Morales-Alamo, R. 1972. Biodeposition as a factor in sedimentation of fine suspended solids in estuaries. Geol. Soc. Am. Mem. 133:121-130.
44. Holland, S. M. 1988. Taphonomic effects of sea-floor exposure on an Ordovician brachiopod assemblage. Palaios 3:588-597.
45. Holland, S. M. 2000. The quality of the fossil record: a sequence stratigraphic perspective. In Erwin, D. H., and Wing, S. L., eds. Deep time. Paleobiology 26(suppl.):103-147.
46. Jaanusson, V. 1972. Constituent analysis of an Ordovician limestone from Sweden. Lethaia 5:217-237.
47. Jacobshagen, V.; Görler, K.; and Giese, P. 1988. Geodynamic evolution of the Atlas System (Morocco) in post-Palaeozoic times. In Jacobshagen, V., ed. The Atlas System of Morocco. Lect. Notes Earth Sci. 15:481-499.
48. James, M. A.; Ansell, A. D.; Collins, M. J.; Curry, G. B.; Peck, L. S.; and Rhodes, M. C. 1992. Biology of living brachiopods. Adv. Mar. Biol. 28:175-387.
49. Jaramillo, E.; Bertran, C.; and Bravo, A. 1992. Mussel biodeposition in an estuary in southern Chile. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 82:85-94.
50. Jie, H.; Zhinan, Z.; Zishan, Y.; and Widdows, J. 2001. Differences in the benthic-pelagic particle flux (biodeposition and sediment erosion) at intertidal sites with and without clam (Ruditapes philippinarium) cultivation in eastern China. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 261:245-261.
51. Johnson, M. E. 1977. Succession and replacement in the development of Silurian brachiopod populations. Lethaia 10:83-93.
52. Johnson, M. E. 1989. Tempestites recorded as variable Pentamerus layers in the Lower Silurian of southern Norway. J. Paleontol. 63:195-205.
53. Jones, C. G.; Lawton, J. H.; and Shachak, M. 1997. Positive and negative effects of organisms as physical ecosystem engineers. Ecology 78:1946-1957.
54. Kidwell, S. M. 1985. Palaeobiological and sedimentological implications of fossil concentrations. Nature 318: 457-460.
55. Kidwell, S. M. 1986a. Models for fossil concentrations: paleobiologic implications. Paleobiology 12:6-24.
56. Kidwell, S. M. 1986b. Taphonomic feedback in Miocene assemblages: testing the role of dead hardparts in benthic communities. Palaios 1:239-255.
57. Kidwell, S. M. 1989. Stratigraphic condensation of marine transgressive records: origin of major shell deposits in the Miocene of Maryland. J. Geol. 97:1-24.
58. Kidwell, S. M. 1991a. The stratigraphy of shell concentrations. In Allison, P. A., and Briggs, D. E. G., eds. Taphonomy: releasing the data locked in the fossil record. New York, Plenum, p. 115-129.
59. Kidwell, S. M. 1991b. Taphonomic feedback (live/dead interactions) in the genesis of bioclastic beds: keys to reconstructing sedimentary dynamics. In Einsele, G.; Ricken, W.; and Seilacher, A., eds. Cycles and events in stratigraphy. Berlin, Springer, p. 268-282.
60. Kidwell, S. M. 1993. Taphonomic expressions of sedimentary hiatuses: field observations on bioclastic concentrations and sequence anatomy in low, moderate and high subsidence settings. Geol. Rund. 82:189-202.
61. Kidwell, S. M., and Aigner, T. 1985. Sedimentary dynamics of complex shell beds: implications for ecologic and evolutionary patterns. In Bayer, U., and Seilacher, A., eds. Sedimentary and evolutionary cycles. Berlin, Springer, p. 382-395.
62. Kidwell, S. M., and Brenchley, P. J. 1994. Patterns in bioclastic accumulation through the Phanerozoic: changes in input or destruction? Geology 22:1139-1143.
63. Kidwell, S. M., and Brenchley, P. J. 1996. Evolution of the fossil record: thickness trends in marine skeletal accumulations and their implications. In Jablonski, D.; Erwin, D. H.; and Lipps, J. H., eds. Evolutionary paleobiology. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, p. 290-336.
64. Kidwell, S. M., and Holland, S. M. 1991. Field description of coarse bioclastic debris. Palaios 6:426-434.
65. Kidwell, S. M., and Jablonski, D. 1983. Taphonomic feedback: ecological consequences of shell accumulations. In Tevesz, M. J. S., and McCall, P. L., eds. Biotic interactions in recent and fossil benthic communities. New York, Plenum, p. 195-248.
66. Kidwell, S. M.; Rothfus, T. A.; and Best, M. M. R. 2001. Sensitivity of taphonomic signatures to sample size, sieve size, damage scoring system, and target taxa. Palaios 16:26-52.
67. Klerks, P. L.; Fraleigh, P. C.; and Lawniczak, J. E. 1996. Effects of zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) on seston levels and sediment deposition in western Lake Erie. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 53:2284-2291.
68. Kondo, Y.; Abbott, S. T.; Kitamura, A.; Kamp, P. J. J.; Naish, T. R.; Kamataki, T.; and Saul, G. S. 1998. The relationship between shellbed type and sequence architecture: examples from Japan and New Zealand. Sediment. Geol. 122:109-127.
69. Kowalewski, M.; Avila Serrano, G. E.; Flessa, K. W.; and Goodfriend, G. A. 2000. Dead delta's former productivity: two trillion shells at the mouth of the Colorado River. Geology 28:1059-1062.
70. Kowalewski, M.; Goodfriend, G. A.; and Flessa, K. W. 1998. High-resolution estimates of temporal mixing within shell beds: the evils and virtues of time-averaging. Paleobiology 24:287-304.
71. Krautter, M.; Conway, K. W.; Barrie, J. V.; and Neuweiler, M. 2001. Discovery of a "living dinosaur": globally unique modern hexactinellid sponge reefs off British Columbia, Canada. Facies 44:265-282.
72. Lachkar, N.; Dommergues, J.-L.; Meister, C.; Neige, P.; Izart, A.; and Lang, J. 1998. Les ammonites du Sinémurien supérieur du Jebel-Bou-Hamid (Haut-Atlas Central, Rich, Maroc): approches paléontologique et biostratigraphique. Geobios 31:587-619.
73. Levin, L. A. 2003. Oxygen minimum zone benthos: adaptation and community response to hypoxia. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Annu. Rev. 41:1-45.
74. Li, X., and Droser, M. L. 1999. Lower and Middle Ordovician shell beds from the Basin and Range Province of the western United States (California, Nevada, and Utah). Palaios 14:215-233.
75. Mehdi, M.; Neuweiler, F.; and Wilmsen, M. 2003. Les formations du Lias inférieur du Haut Atlas central de Rich (Maroc): précisions lithostratigraphiques et étapes de l'évolution du bassin. Bull. Soc. Geol. Fr. 174: 227-242.
76. Meldahl, K. H. 1993. Geographic gradients in the formation of shell concentrations: Plio-Pleistocene marine deposits, Gulf of California. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 101:1-25.
77. Meldabl, K. H.; Flessa, K. W.; and Cutler, A. H. 1997. Time-averaging and postmortem skeletal survival in benthic fossil assemblages: quantitative comparisons among Holocene environments. Paleobiology 23:207-229.
78. Middlemiss, F. A. 1962. Brachiopod ecology and Lower Greensand palaeogeography. Palaeontology 5:253-267.
79. Milhi, A.; Ettaki, M.; Chellai, E. H.; and Hadri, M. 2002. Les formations lithostratigraphiques jurassiques du Haut-Atlas central (Maroc): corrélations et reconstitutions paléogéographiques. Rev. Paleobiol. 21:241-256.
80. Miller, D. C.; Norkko, A.; and Pilditch, C. A. 2002. Influence of diet on dispersal of horse mussel Atrina zelandica biodeposits. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 242:153-167.
81. Mirto, S., La Rosa, T.; Danovaro, R.; and Mazzola, A. 2000. Microbial and meiofaunal response to intensive mussel-farm biodeposition in coastal sediments of the western Mediterranean. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 40:244-252.
82. Monaco, P., and Giannetti, A. 2002. Three-dimensional burrow systems and taphofacies in shallowing-upward parasequences, Lower Jurassic carbonate platform (Calcari grigi, Southern Alps, Italy). Facies 47:57-82.
83. Mortl, M., and Rothhaupt, K. O. 2003. Effects of adult Dreissena polymorpha on settling juveniles and associated macroinvertebrates. Int. Rev. Hydrobiol. 88: 561-569.
84. Mullins, H. T.; Newton, C. R.; Heath, K.; and van Buren, H. M. 1981. Modern deep-water coral mounds north of Little Bahama Bank: criteria for recognition of deepwater coral bioherms in the rock record. J. Sediment. Petrol. 51:999-1013.
85. Mullins, H. T.; Thompson, J. B.; McDougall, K.; and Vercoutere, T. L. 1985. Oxygen-minimum zone edge effects: evidence from the central California coastal upwelling system. Geology 13:491-494.
86. Naish, T., and Kamp, P. J. J. 1997. Sequence stratigraphy of sixth-order (41 k.y.) Pliocene-Pleistocene cyclothems, Wanganui Basin, New Zealand: a case for the regressive systems tract. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 109: 978-999.
87. Nebelsick, J. H., and Kroh, A. 2002. The stormy path from life to death assemblages: the formation and preservation of mass accumulations of fossil sand dollars. Palaios 17:378-393.
88. Neuweiler, F.; Mehdi, M.; and Wilmsen, M. 2001. Facies of Liassic sponge mounds, Central High Atlas, Morocco. Facies 44:242-264.
89. Newell, R. I. E. 2004. Ecosystem influences of natural and cultivated populations of suspension-feeding bivalve molluscs: a review. J. Shellfish Res. 23:51-61.
90. Norkko, A.; Hewitt, J. E.; Thrush, S. F.; and Funnell, G. A. 2001. Benthic-pelagic coupling and suspension-feeding bivalves: linking site-specific sediment flux and biodeposition to benthic community structure. Limnol. Oceanogr. 46:2067-2072.
91. Olszewski, T. 1999. Taking advantage of time-averaging. Paleobiology 25:226-238.
92. Parras, A., and Casadío, S. 2005. Taphonomy and sequence stratigraphic significance of oyster-dominated concentrations from the San Julián formation, Oligocene of Patagonia, Argentina. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 217:47-66.
93. Parsons-Hubbard, K. M.; Callender, W. R.; Powell, E. N.; Brett, C. E.; Walker, S. E.; Raymond, A. L.; and Staff, G. M. 1999. Rates of burial and disturbance of experimentally-deployed molluscs: implications for preservation potential. Palaios 144:337-351.
94. Peck, L. S. 1996. Metabolism and feeding in the Antarctic brachiopod Liothyrella uva: a low energy lifestyle species with restricted metabolic scope. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 263:223-228.
95. Peck, L. S. 2001. Physiology. In Carlson, S. J., and Sandy, M. R., eds. Brachiopods ancient and modern. Paleontol. Soc. Pap. 7:89-104.
96. Peck, L. S.; Barnes, D. K. A.; and Willmott, J. 2005. Responses to extreme seasonality in food supply: diet plasticity in Antarctic brachiopods. Mar. Biol. 147: 453-463.
97. Peck, L. S.; Clarke, A.; and Holmes, L. J. 1987. Summer metabolism and seasonal changes in biochemical composition of the Antarctic brachiopod Liothyrella uva (Broderip, 1833). J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 114:85-97.
98. Pullen, J., and LaBarbera, M. 1991. Modes of feeding in aggregations of barnacles and the shape of aggregations. Biol. Bull. 181:442-452.
99. Rhoads, D. C. 1974. Organism-sediment relations on the muddy sea floor. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Annu. Rev. 12: 263-300.
100. Rhodes, M. C., and Thayer, C. W. 1991. Effects of turbidity on suspension-feeding: are brachiopods better than bivalves? In MacKinnon, D. I.; Lee, D. E.; and Campbell, J. D., eds. Brachiopods through time. Rotterdam, Balkema, p. 191-196.
101. Rhodes, M. C., and Thompson, R. J. 1993. Comparative physiology of suspension-feeding in living brachiopods and bivalves: evolutionary implications. Paleobiology 19:322-334.
102. Ricciardi, A.; Whoriskey, F. G.; and Rasmussen, J. B. 1997. The role of the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) in structuring macroinvertebrate communities on hard substrata. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 54:2596-2608.
103. Rudwick, M. J. S. 1962. Notes on the ecology of brachiopods in New Zealand. Trans. R. Soc. N. Z. Zool. 1:327-335.
104. Samankassou, E., and West, R. R. 2002. Construction versus accumulation in phylloid algal mounds: an example of a small constructed mound in the Pennsylvanian of Kansas, USA. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 185:379-389.
105. Sanders, D., and Pons, J. M. 1999. Rudist formations in mixed siliciclastic-carbonate depositional environments, Upper Cretaceous, Austria: stratigraphy, sedimentology, and models of development. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 148:249-284.
106. Schäfer, K. 1969. Vergleichs-Schaubilder zur Bestimmung des Allochemgehalts bioklastischer Karbonatgesteine. Neues Jahrb. Geol. Palaeontol. Monatshefte 1969: 173-184.
107. Schmid, D. U.; Leinfelder, R. R.; and Nose, M. 2001. Growth dynamics and ecology of Upper Jurassic mounds, with comparisons to Mid-Paleozoic mounds. Sediment. Geol. 145:343-376,
108. Simões, M. G., and Kowalewski, M. 1998. Shell beds as paleoecological puzzles: a case study from the Upper Permian of the Paraná Basin, Brazil. Facies 38:175-196.
109. Simone, L.; Carannante, G.; Ruberti, D.; Sirna, M.; Sirna, G.; Laviano, A.; and Tropeano, M. 2003. Development of rudist lithosomes in the Coniacian-Lower Campanian carbonate shelves of central-southern Italy: high-energy vs. low-energy settings. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 200:5-29.
110. Thayer, C. W. 1986. Are brachiopods better than bivalves? mechanisms of turbidity tolerance and their interaction with feeding in articulates. Paleobiology 12:161-174.
111. Tomašových, A. 2004. Effect of extrinsic factors on bio-fabric and brachiopod alteration in a shallow intraplatform carbonate setting (Upper Triassic, West Carpathians). Palaios 19:349-371.
112. Tomašových, A.; Fürsich, F. T.; and Olszewski, T. D. 2006. Modeling shelliness and alteration in shell beds: variations in hardpart input and burial rates leads to opposing predictions. Paleobiology 32.
113. Tsuchiya, M. 2002. Faunal structures associated with patches of mussels on East Asian coasts. Helgol. Mar. Res. 56:31-36.
114. Tunnicliffe, V., and Wilson, K. 1988. Brachiopod populations: distribution in fjords of British Columbia (Canada) and tolerance of low oxygen concentrations. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 47:117-128.
115. Wanless, H. R.; Burton, E. A.; and Dravis, J. 1981. Hydrodynamics of carbonate fecal pellets. J. Sediment. Petrol. 51:27-36.
116. Webby, B. D., and Percival, I. G. 1983. Ordovician trimerellacean brachiopod shell beds. Lethaia 16:215-232.
117. Wehrmann, A. 2003. Biogenic and taphonomic processes affecting the development of shell assemblages: an actuopaleontological case study from mussel banks on North Sea tidal flats. Facies 49:19-30.
118. West, R. R. 1977. Life assemblage and substrate of Meekelia striatocostata (Cox). J. Paleontol. 51:740-749.
119. Widdows, J.; Blauw, A.; Heip, C. H. R.; Herman, P. M. J.; Lucas, C. H.; Middelburg, J. J.; Schmidt, S.; Brinsley, M. D.; Twisk, F.; and Verbeek, H. 2004. Role of physical and biological processes in sediment dynamics of a tidal flat in Westerschelde Estuary, SW Netherlands. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 274:41-56.
120. Wilmsen, M.; Blau, J.; Meister, C.; Mehdi, M.; and Neuweiler, F. 2002. Early Jurassic (Sinemurian-Toarcian) ammonites from the central High Atlas (Morocco) between Er-Rachidia and Rich. Rev. Paleobiol. 21:149-175.
121. Wilson, M. A. 1982. Origin of brachiopod-bryozoan assemblages in an Upper Carboniferous limestone: importance of physical and ecological controls. Lethaia 15:263-273.