International local government law

Urban Lawyer

Volumn 38, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 1-62

  Frug, Gerald E ^a   Barron, David J ^a  

^a HARVARD LAW SCHOOL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

INTERNATIONAL LAW; LOCAL GOVERNMENT;

EID: 33646111442     PISSN: 00420905     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (345)

1. For an examination of these rules, see Gerald E. Frug, Richard T. Ford & David J. Baron, Logal Government Law (4th ed. 2006).
2. See infra Section II.C(2).
3. See infra Section II.B(2)(b).
4. See infra Section II.B(1)(a).
5. See generally Neil Brenner, New State Spaces: Urban Governance and the Rescaling of Statehood (2004);
6. City Matters: Competitiveness, Cohesion and Urban Governance (Martin Boddy & Michael Parkinson eds., 2004).
7. See generally Saskia Sassen, The Global City (1999) [hereinafter The Global City];
8. World Cities in a World System (Paul Knox & Peter Taylor eds., 1995).
9. The Best Practices & Locale Leadership Programme encourages sustainable local development. Best Practices & Locale Leadership Programme, http://www.blpnet.org (last visited Nov. 21, 2005) [hereinafter Best Practices].
10. Constitution of the World Organization of United Cities and Local Governments, 1, http://www.cities-localgovernments.org/uclg/upload/ template/templatedocs/Constitution.pdf (last visited Nov. 21, 2005) [hereafter UCLG Constitution].
11. See The Global Campaign on Urban Governance, Concept Paper (2d ed. 2002), http://www.unhabitat.org/campaigns/governance/ campaign_overview.asp (last visited Nov. 21, 2005) [hereinafter Concept Paper].
12. United Cities and Local Government, Founding Congress Final Declaration § 11, http://www.dsf-fsn.org/en/documents/Declaration-UCLG-en.pdf (last visited Nov. 21, 2005) [hereinafter UCLG Final Declaration].
13. United Cities and Local Governments is a group that advocates democratic local self-government. See United Cities and Local Governments, http:// www.cities-local governments.org/uclg/index.asp (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
14. See supra notes 5-6.
15. See supra note 5.
16. See supra note 6.
17. See, e.g., Daniel Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age 112-59 (1998).
18. See Robert Brooks, Metropolitan Free Cities, 30 Pol. Sci. Q. 222 (1915) (describing powers of European cities);
19. Frank Goodnow, Municipal Home Rule (1897) (discussing powers of European cities).
20. See Rodgers, supra note 15.
21. See generally David J. Barron, Reclaiming Home Rule, 116 Harv. L. Rev. 2257, 2277-2322 (2003) (examining the home rule movement) [hereinafter Barron, Reclaiming Home Rule].
22. See Rodgers, supra note 15, at 218-20;
23. M. Christine Boyer, Dreaming the Rational City: The Myth of American City Planning (1983).
24. James Kusher, Comparative Urban Planning Law: An Introduction to Urban Land Development Law in the United States Through the Lens of Comparing the Experience of Other Nations (2003).
25. Cities Transformed: Demographic Change and Its Implications in the Developing World (Panel on Urban Population Dynamics, M.R. Montgomery, R. Stren, B. Cohen & H.E. Reeds eds., 2003) [hereinafter Cities Transformed].
26. Id. at 8, 11-12.
27. Id. at 7-8.
28. Id. at 25.
29. Id. at 401-06.
30. See H. V. Savitch & Paul Kantor, Cities in the International Market-Place (2004).
31. Id. at 43-46.
32. Illegal Cities: Law and Urban Change in Developing Countries (Edesio Fernandes & Ann Varley eds., 1998).
33. Id. at 3.
34. John Friedmann, The World Cities Hypothesis, in World Cities in a world System 317 (Paul Knox & Peter Taylor eds., 1995).
35. Id. at 317-18.
36. Id. at 319-22.
37. Id. at 322-23.
38. See id.; see also The Global City, supra note 6 (exploring how spatial dispersal and global integration has created a new role for the global city).
39. See, e.g., Arthur S. Alderson & Jason Beckfield, Power and Position in the World City System, 109 Am. J. Soc. 811 (Jan. 2004) (classifying cities position in the world city system);
40. J.V Beaverstock, R.G. Smith & P.J. Taylor, A Roster of World Cities, 16 Cities 445 (1999) (analyzing the functional tradition, which treats cities as a part of a larger system, as an approach to the study of cities as an integral part to contemporary globalization process);
41. see also Jennifer Robinson, Johannesburg's Futures: Beyond Development and Global Success, in Emerging Johannesburg, Perspective on the Postapartheid City 260, 268 (Richard Tomlinson et al. eds., 2003) (critiquing world cities literature for its preoccupation with classification).
42. See The Global City, supra note 6; see also Alderson & Beckfield, supra note 35, at 846 (concluding New York, London, and Tokyo to be the most powerful cities).
43. See The Global City, supra note 6, at 3-4 (2001).
44. See Alderson & Beckfield, supra note 35, at 814-19 (describing this aspect of the world cities hypothesis).
45. See id. at 812.
46. See, e.g., Robinson, supra note 35, at 268;
47. see also John Flowerdew, The Discursive Construction of a World-Class City, 15 Discourse & Soc'y 579 (2004) (exploring how the Hong Kong government promoted itself as a world city).
48. Arjun Apadurai, Deep Democracy: Urban Governmentality and the Horizon of Politics, 14 Pub. Culture 21, 24 (2002).
49. See Saskia Sassen, Introduction to Global Networks: Linked Cities (Saskia Sassen ed., 2002) [hereinafter Global Networks].
50. Friedmann, supra note 30, at 318.
51. See infra Section II.B(2).
52. See Cities Transformed, supra note 21.
53. See, e.g., Global Networks, supra note 42.
54. see also Savitch & Kantor, supra note 26, at 357.
55. See Mob Violence, 6 Moore Digest § 1026, at 837-49 ("Lynching of Italians at New Orleans and Elsewhere");
56. see also id. § 998-9 (describing international negotiations in response to the lynching).
57. Jack L. Goldsmith, Federal Courts, Foreign Affairs, and Federalism, 83 Va. L. Rev. 1617, 1655 (1997).
58. Much the same can be said about the domestic law of foreign relations in the United States. This field establishes rules regarding the power of cities and other sub-national entities to engage in international affairs. The U.S. Constitution makes it clear, for example, that the individual states may not enter into treaties without congressional approval. And the Supreme Court has relied on the federal constitutional structure to hold that states and cities are impliedly preempted from engaging in a range of practices that might bear on the nation's foreign policy. See generally Goldsmith, supra note 48. In recent years, scholars of foreign affairs law in the United States have devoted renewed attentions to the international role that states and cities should be permitted to play. They have even begun to suggest that, in light of globalization, some long-standing legal doctrines that limit their role should be re-thought. See id.; see also Peter Spiro, Globalization and the (Foreign Affairs) Constitution, 63 Ohio St. L. J. 649 (2002) (discussing how foreign relations law doctrines that are based on history of international relations may need to be re-examined as elements of globalization reduce risk of disastrous interstate conflict). But these scholars have devoted no attention to international law's regulation of city powers. Their focus is entirely domestic and primarily constitutional. Moreover, like scholars of foreign affairs law generally, they are typically not interested in cities as such. They focus on the role of sub-national entities generally, and thus are as likely to discuss the legal rights of American states as cities. See Goldsmith, supra note 48. The same point can be made about the scholarship tends to be on this body of law's impact on the nation state or, in some cases, on the next level of government down in federal systems. To the extent that cities are mentioned, it is generally only in the course of an analysis of international law's role in limiting sub-national governments generally. That international economic law also might be regulating the kinds of powers that nations (or sub-natioanl governments in many federal systems) grant or deny to cities as distinct governmental institutions has essentially escaped scholarly consideration. See infra II.C.
59. See generally Nathaniel Berman, "But the Alternative Is Despair": European Nationalism and the Modernist Renewal of International Law, 106 Harv. L. Rev. 1792 (1993) (discussing the theoretical displacement of traditional problems of international law [and] particular responses to the Nationalist challenge." Id. at 1799.).
60. As a leading casebook on international law explains, "[t]he structure of the modern law of nations is intimately connected with the era of sovereign national states dealing with each other as independent units. In a strict sense, therefore, the history of the modern law of nations begins with the emergence of independent nation-states from the ruins of the medieval Holy Roman Empire...." See Louis Henkin et al., International Law: Cases and Materials 9 (3d ed. 1993) [hereinafter Henkin].
61. See, e.g., J. L. Brierly, The Law of Nations: An Introduction to the Internationa Law of Peace 1 (5th ed. 1955) ("The Law of Nations, or international law, may be defined as the body of rules and principles of action which are binding upon civilized states in their relations with one another." Id. at 1.).
62. See Guido Acquaviva, Subjects of International Law: A Power-based Analysis, 38 Vand. J. Trans. L. 345, 353-57 (2005).
63. See Henkin, supra note 51.
64. Ian Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law (4th ed. 1990) (discussing Iran);
65. Acquaviva, supra note 53, at 394 (discussing Al Qaeda).
66. See Brownlie, supra note 55, at 60-61, 74-76.
67. See id. at 287.
68. Vienna Convention, art. 2, May 23, 1969.
69. U.N. Charter art. 3.
70. Restatement (Third) of Foreign Relations § 201 (1987);
71. see also Montevideo Convention, art. 1, Dec. 26, 1933, 3 Bevans 145.
72. Brownlie, supra note 55, at 71-72;
73. see also Acquaviva, supra note 53.
74. Brownlie, supra note 55, at 74.
75. Singapore is one of eight "cities" discussed in Globalizing Cities: A New Spatial Order? (Peter Marcuse & Ronald van Kempen eds., 2000).
76. Brownlie, supra note 55, at 85-86 (discussing micro-states).
77. See id.;
78. Berman, supra note 50 (discussing Danzig);
79. Wikipedia, City-State, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City-state (last visited Nov. 21, 2005) [hereinafter City-State].
80. City-State, supra note 65.
81. Berman, supra note 50, at 1886-93.
82. Advisory Opinion, Free City of Danzig and International Labor Organization, 1930 P.C.I.J. (ser.B) No. 18 (August 26).
83. See Berman, supra note 50.
84. See id.
85. Henkin, supra note 51.
86. Id.
87. Brownlie, supra note 55, at 34
88. Id. at 35.
89. See Tennessee v. Lane, 541 U.S. 509 n.16 (2004);
90. see Bd. of Trs. of Univ. of Al. v. Garrett, 531 U.S. 356, 378-79 (2001) (Breyer J., dissenting).
91. See Bd. of Trs. of Univ. of Al., 531 U.S. at 368-69.
92. Id.
93. Restatement (Third) Foreign Relations § 207(c);
94. Brownlie, supra note 55, at 451.
95. Brownlie, supra note 55, at 447;
96. Restatement (Third) Foreign Relations § 207(c).
97. Henkin, supra note 51.
98. Brownlie, supra note 55, at 446-55.
99. Peter Spiro nicely summarizes the functional benefits in this regard: In the old world, this doctrine both reflected and reinforced a reality of central government control and centralized relations among states in the international arena. Against the backdrop of thin communication networks and diverse systems of government, it would have been highly inefficient to require states to interact with component units of other states. It would also have been difficult for states to enforce obligations against those component units, for their leverage would, in most cases, have been minimal; greater international conflict would have been the result. Better to require that central governments police their own domains, the interposition of domestic constitutional arrangements notwithstanding, insofar as central governments were best positioned to discipline potentially disruptive actors. Spiro, supra note 49, at 668.
100. See, e.g., Edward T. Hayes, Changing Notions of Sovereignty and Federalism in the International Economic System: A Reassessment of WTO Regulation of Federal States and the Regional and Local Governments Within Their Territories, 25 Nw. J. Int'l L. & Bus. 1 (2004);
101. Hal S. Shapiro, Is There a Role for Sub-Federal Governments in International Trade Policy Formation?, 9 Ius Gentium 73 (2003);
102. Peter L. Fitzgerald, Massachusetts, Burma, and the World Trade Organization: A Commentary on Blacklisting, Federalism, and Internet Advocacy in the Global Trading Era, 34 Cornell Int'l L.J. 1 (2001);
103. Robert Stumberg, Sovereignty by Subtraction: The Multilateral Agreement on Investment, 31 Cornell Int'l L.J. 491 (2001).
104. Kal Raustiala, Rethinking the Sovereignty Debate in International Economic Law, 6 J. Int'l Econ. L. 4, 841 (2003).
105. See Mildred Warner & Jennifer Gerbasi, Rescaling and Reforming the State Under NAFTA: Implications for Subnational Authority, 28 Int'l J. of Urb. & Reg. Res. 4, 858 (2004).
106. See id.
107. See id. at 868-69.
108. See, e.g., Kerry Rittich, The Future of Law and Development: Second Generation Reforms (2004) (unpublished manuscript, on file with author).
109. Henry J. Steiner & Philip Alston, Human Rights in Context: Law, Politics, Morals (2d ed. 2000).
110. Anne-Marie Slaughter, A New World Order (2004).
111. See infra notes 133-35 and accompanying text.
112. Slaughter, supra note 90.
113. Id. at 12.
114. Id. at 13.
115. Id. at 213-15.
116. Id. at 31.
117. Slaughter, supra note 90, at 255-57 (discussing subsidiarity; the word "local" appears only in the definition of subsidiarity: "the location of government power at the lowest level practicable among local, regional, national, and supranational authorities." Id. at 259.).
118. UCLG Constitution, supra note 8, preamble.
119. Id. art. 3.
120. Id. art. 4.
121. II World Assembly of Cities and Local Authorities, Rio de Janeiro, 6 May 2001, http://www.iula-int.org/iula/upload/template/templatedocs/wac/ aciifina/declaration.htm (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
122. The UCLG Constitution refers to, among other predecessors, the activities since 1913 of the International Union of Local Authorities, the adoption in 1957 of the United Towns Charter, and the 1996 Final Declaration of the World Assembly of Cities and Local Authorities adopted in Istanbul in 1996. Id.
123. City Mayor's Organisation, Communities in Some 125 Countries Work for Peace Through Sister Cities, http://citymayors.com/orgs/ sister_cities.html (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
124. International City/County Management Association, Association Overview, http://www.icma.org/main/bc.asp?bcid=60&hsid=1&ssid1= 17&ssid2=22&ssid3=259 (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
125. See, e.g., FLACMA, http://www.flacma.org (Latin America) (last visited Nov. 21, 2005);
126. Council of European Municipalities and Regions, http://www.ccre.org (Europe) (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
127. The Cities Alliance, http://www.citiesalliance.org/index.html (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
128. The Cities Alliance, City Alliance Members, http:// www.citiesalliance.org/members/members.html (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
129. United Cities and Local Governments, Presidency, Treasurer and Vice-Presidents, http://www.cities-localgovernments.org/uclg/index.asp (follow "About Us" hyperlink; then "Presidency" hyperlink) (last visited Nov. 21, 2005);
130. Wikipedia, South Bay, Florida, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ South_Bay,_Florida (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
131. Metropolis, About Metropolis, http://www.metropolis.org/ index.asp?docId=40&MenuID=40&seccio=2 (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
132. Proposal 18, Chair of the Panel of Eminent Persons on United Nations-Civil Society Relations, Transmittal letter dated 7 June 2004 from the Chair of the Panel of Eminent Persons on United Nations-Civil Society Relations addressed to the Secretary-General, U.N. Doc. A/58/ 817,20 (June 11, 2004), available at http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/ GEN/N04/376/41/PDF/N0437641.pdf?OpenElement (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
133. Id. at 20 (Proposal 17, 18).
134. Press Release, United Cities and Local Government, United Cities and Local Governments and UN-HABITAT embark on partnership following landmark Agreement signed at World Urban Forum (Sept. 17, 2004), http:// hq.unhabitat.org/cdrom/wuf/documents/Special%20events/MoU/ Agreement%20UN-HABITAT%20and%20 UCLG/Press%20releases/PRESS2.pdf (last visited Nov. 21, 2005);
135. Agreement of Cooperation Between the United Nations Human Settlements Programme and United Cities and Local Government, http:// www.unhabitat.org/unacla/documents/uclg_cooperation.pdf (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
136. United Cities and Local Government, Letter in support of the Millennium Development Goals, http://www.cities-localgovernments.org/uclg/upload/ news/newsdocs/Letter_for_Government.doc (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
137. United Nations Division on Sustainable Development, Agenda 21, http:// www.sidsnet.org/docshare/other/Agenda21_UNCED.pdf (last visited Nov. 21, 2005) [hereinafter Agenda 21].
138. Id. at Section III.
139. See Jorge Luis Borges, The Analytical Language of John Wilkins, in Jorge Luis Borges, Other Inquisitions 101 (Ruth L.C. Sims trans., Univ. Tex. Press 1964).
140. Agenda 21, supra note 114, chs. 24, 26, 27, 28, 30.
141. Id. ch. 23.
142. Id. at 28, 3.
143. Commission on Sustainable Development, Second Local Agenda Survey (2002), http://www.iclei.org/documents/Global/final_document.pdf [hereinafter Local Agenda Survey].
144. Id. at 21.
145. Id. at 27.
146. Earl H. Fry, The Expanding Role of State and Local Governments in U.S. Foreign Affairs (1998);
147. Andrew Kirby & Sallie Marston, World Cities and Global Communities: The Municipal Foreign Policy Movement and New Roles for Cities, in World Cities in a World System, supra note 6, at 232;
148. Heidi Hobbs, City Hall Goes Abroad (1994).
149. Hobbs, supra note 123;
150. Kirby & Marston, supra note 123, at 275.
151. Cities for Peace, http://www.ips-dc.org/citiesforpeace/ (last visited Nov. 11, 2005).
152. Evelyn Nieves, Local Officials Rise Up to Defy the Patriot Act, Wash. Post, Apr. 21, 2003, at A01.
153. Shanna Singh, Note, Brandeis's Happy Incidents Revisited: U.S. Cities as the New Laboratories of International Law, 37 Geo. Wash. Int'l L. Rev. 537, 546 (2005);
154. Los Angeles City Resolution in Support of CEDAW, http://www.lacity.org/ csw/html/cswpgE3d.htm (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
155. Singh, supra note 127, at 547-48.
156. U.S. 363 (2000).
157. Id. at 388.
158. Goldsmith, supra note 48, at 1641.
159. Trade Development Alliance, http://www.seattle.gov/tda/about/mission.htm (last visited Nov. 21, 2005);
160. see Fry, supra 123, at 66-105.
161. Seattle Office of Intergovernmental Relations, http:// www.cityofseattle.net/oir/ (last visited Nov. 21, 2005);
162. Atlanta Office of International Relations, http://www.atlantaga.gov/ mayor/off_exteraffair.aspx (last visited Nov. 21, 2005);
163. City of Gotenborg, International Activities, http://www10.goteborg.se/ internationellt/en/(last visited Nov. 21, 2005);
164. International Relations Office of Kyoto City, http://www.city.kyoto.jp/ somu/kokusai/index_e.html (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
165. See United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat) World Associations of Cities and Local Authorities Coordination, Towards a World Charter of Local Self Government, http://www.gdrc.org/u-gov/ charter.html (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
166. Id.
167. Council of Europe, European Charter of Local Self-Government, http:// conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/122.htm (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
168. As we suggest in Section III, however, the reality is in fact much more complex. See infra Section III.
169. See infra Section II.B(2)(a).
170. Rittich, supra note 88.
171. The World Bank, Comprehensive Development Framework, http:// web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/PROJECTS/STRATEGIES/CDF/ 0,,pagePK:60447~theSitePK:140576,00.html (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
172. Monterrey Consensus, Confronting the Challenges of Financing for Development: A Global Response 3, http://www.un.org/esa/ffd/ Monterrey-Consensus-exceptsaconf198_11.pdf (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
173. Concept Paper, supra note 9.
174. Id. at 4.
175. Id. at 9.
176. Id. at 3, 8.
177. Id. at 3-4.
178. United Nations Human Settlement Programme, International Legal Instruments Addressing Good Governance 5 (2002), http:// www.unhabitat.org/campaigns/governance/documents/ Intl%20legal%20instruments%20addressing%20good%20 gov.pdf (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
179. Id.
180. UN-HABITAT, The Global Campaign on Urban Governance-Legislative Reform, http://www.unhabitat.org/campaigns/governance/ activities_3.asp#Legislation (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
181. Concept Paper, supra note 9, at 13.
182. Id. at 14.
183. Id.
184. Id. at 8.
185. Id. at 15.
186. Concept Paper, supra note 9, at 15.
187. Id. at 12-15.
188. The World Bank, Cities in Transition 20 (2000), http://www.worldbank. org/html/fpd/urban/strategy/CitiesSummary.pdf (last visited Nov. 21, 2005) ("In selecting cities for assistance, the Bank... would... target aid to cities showing a determination to help themselves." Id.) [hereinafter Cities in Transition].
189. UN-HABITAT, The Global Campaign on Urban Governance-Campaign Overview, http://www.unhabitat.org/campaigns/governance/campaign_overview.asp (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
190. For The World Bank's projects, see The World Bank, Urban Development-Projects & Policies, http://www.worldbank.org/urban (follow "Projects & Policies" hyperlink) (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
191. Concept Paper, supra note 9, at 3.
192. See United Nations, International Law, http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/ index.htm (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
193. See International Council on Human Rights Policy, Local Rule: Decentralisation and Human Rights (2002), http://www.ichrp.org/ac/ excerpts/96.pdf (last visited Nov. 21, 2005) [hereinafter Local Rule].
194. UCLG Final Declaration, supra note 10, ¶ 21.
195. Id. ¶ 26.
196. Local Rule, supra note 161, at 35.
197. UN Economic and Social Council, Right to Education: Scope and Implementation ¶ 34 (2003).
198. UN Economic and Social Council, The Realization of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: The Right to Adequate Housing (1993).
199. UN Economic and Social Council, Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights: Physical and Mental Health ¶ 23 (2003).
200. UN-Habitat, Responding to the Challenges of an Urbanizing World: UN-Habitat Annual Report 15 (2005), http://www.unhabitat.org/documents/ UN-HABITAT_AR_2005.pdf (last visited Nov. 21, 2005) [hereinafter UN-Habitat Annual Report].
201. Id. at 23.
202. UN-Habitat, The UN-Habitat Strategic Vision 5 (2003), http:// www.unchs.org/documents/HabVision030505Public.pdf (last visited Nov. 21, 2005) [hereinafter Strategic Vision].
203. See supra notes 165-67.
204. See infra Section II.C(2).
205. Strategic Vision, supra note 170, at 5.
206. See United National Conference on Trade and Development, New Records Being Set in Global Foreign Direct Investment Despite Financial Crises - Some Gain Possible for 1998, http://www.unctad.org/ Templates/webflyer.asp?docid= 3151&intItemID=2024&lang=1 (last visited Nov. 28, 2005).
207. Jacqueline Granados, Investor Protection and Foreign Investment Under NAFTA Chapter II: Prospects for the Western Hemisphere Under Chapter 17 of the FTAA, 13 Cardozo J. Int'l & Comp. L. 189 (2005).
208. Stephen J. Canner, The Multilateral Agreement on Investment, 31 Cornell Int'l L.J. 657 (1998).
209. See, e.g., Vicki Been & Joel Beauvais, The Global Fifth Amendment? NAFTA's Investment Protections and the Misguided Quest for an International "Regulatory Takings" Doctrine, 78 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 30, 59-86 (2003) (discussing how arbitral interpretations of Article 1110 threaten to impose a compensation requirement more expansive than the Fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution).
210. This expansionary trend can be seen by comparing the terms of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), an agreement from the 1940s that comes under the umbrella of the World Trade Organization (WTO), with subsequent WTO agreements, such as the 1994 General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). As one commentator explains, "the GATS provision on national treatment... embraces all policies that might discriminate between domestic and foreign suppliers.... More important, the GATS article on market access extends beyond traditional concerns of access for foreign service suppliers to encompass all policies which restrict access to a market." Christopher Findlay, Services Sector Reform and Development Strategies: Issues and Research Priorities, United Nations Conference on Trade and Developement, Policy Issues in International Trade & Commodities, Study Series No. 8, at 15 (2001) available at http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/ itcdtab9_en.pdf (last visited Nov. 21, 2005). When the World Trade Organization subsequently surveyed businesses regarding the government regulations that most concerned them, they highlighted quintessentially local ones like zoning and land use permitting. Thus, while it is by no means clear that the GATS covers these local matters, the possibility that it does is real. Ellen Gould, International Trade Agreements: Recent Developments of Interest to Local Governments 8 (August 2004).
211. See Ward Ferdinandusse, Out of the Black-Box? The International Obligations of State Organs, 29 Brook. J. Int'l L. 45, 66-71 (2003).
212. See Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, A Guide for Canadian Municipalities (2005), http://www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/ tna-nac/fcm/intro2-en.asp (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
213. Canada has published - and placed online - an extensive guide to municipal obligations under international trade agreements. The guide is clearly intended to allay local concerns that cities are being stripped of traditional powers by international trade agreements. Yet its opening sentence implicitly (and perhaps unintentionally) concedes the dramatic extent to which international trade regulation now influences local policymaking: "This Guide is intended to help municipalities deal with the day-to-day questions that may arise regarding provisions in trade agreements relevant to areas of municipal activity, i.e., regulation (e.g. zoning and environmental regulation), government purchasing, financial assistance and public-private partnership." The guide's description of local best practices makes clear its disciplinary aims: "[W]hile international trade obligations create additional considerations that municipal governments must take into account, to the extent that municipalities' regulatory practices are transparent and non-discriminatory the chance of trade issues arising is greatly minimized." Id.
214. As cities internalize the central government's pro-investment goals, they may refrain from pursuing certain policies that would be lawful domestically but that might raise international legal concerns. Some Canadian cities, for example, have scrapped a proposed inter-local agreement for this reason. See Steven Shrybman, Public-Private Partnerships: Assessing The Risks Associated with International Trade, Investment and Services Agreements (2002), http://www.cupe.ca/updir/ P3s%20&%20Trade% 20Agreements%20.doc (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
215. The Senate Select Committee on International Trade Policy and State Legislation, California: Our Laws at Risk, California State Senate, available at http://www. sen.ca.gov/ftp/SEN/COMMITTEE/SUB/ BP_INTER_TRADE/_home/LETTERHEAD_LAWS_RISK.HTM (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
216. Local resistance seems to have been unusually strong in Canada. According to one anti-GATS website, over sixty municipalities have passed resolutions opposing Canada's signing on to the General Agreement on Trade in Services. GATSwatch, Stop the GATS Attack: Involving Local and Regional Governments, http://www.gatswatch.org/locgov-list.html (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
217. I.L.M. 36 (2001).
218. Id.
219. Id. at 50.
220. Id. at 51.
221. See, e.g., Anthony DePalma, NAFTA's Dirty Little Secret, N.Y. Times, Mar. 11, 2001;
222. David Barkin, The Social and Environmental Impacts of the Corporate Responsibility Movement in Mexico Since NAFTA, 30 N.C. J. Int'l L. & Com. Reg. 895, 912 (2005).
223. See, e.g., Vincent Frakes, In the Driver's Seat: NAFTA's Chapter II as a Judicial Vehicle for the Expansion of Investor Rights, 1 Bus. L. Brief 49, 50 (2005) (criticizing panel decision).
224. But cf. Michael Trebilock & Robert Howse, The Regulation of International Trade 464 (3d ed. 2005) (asserting that "it is quite likely that the local authority acted for reasons having nothing to do with conservation, but connected to the company's refusal to pay bribes to local officials.").
225. See Been & Beauvais, supra note 177, at 59-86 (discussing how arbitral interpretations of Article 1110 threaten to impose a compensation requirement more expansive than the Fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution).
226. Metalclad, 40 I.L.M. at 43-44.
227. Id. at 42.
228. Id. at 48.
229. Id. at 50.
230. At one point, an informal pact between Metalclad and the central government did seem to authorize the company to proceed with its plans, but that agreement ultimately fell apart. Id.
231. Investor's Memorial, Metalclad Corp. v. United Mexican States, ICSID (W. Bank) ¶ 212, available at http://naftaclaims.com/Disputes/Mexico/ Metalclad/MetalcladInvestorMemorial.pdf (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
232. Id. ¶¶ 166, 177.
233. Metalclad, 40 I.L.M. at 50.
234. Id.
235. Id.
236. Mexico's Post-Hearing Submission, Metalclad Corp. v. United Mexican States, ¶¶ 200-208, available at http://naftaclaims.com/ Disputes/Mexico/Metalclad/MetalcladMexicoPostHearingBrief.pdf (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
237. Id. ¶ 1305.
238. Mexico's Rejoinder to Metalclad's Reply, Metalclad Corp. v. United Mexican States, at ¶ 16(d), available at http://www.gwu.edu/ ~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB65/metmexb.pdf (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
239. See Frug, Ford & Barron, supra note 1, at 138-158.
240. Id.
241. Barron, Reclaiming Home Rule, supra note 18.
242. United Mexican States v. Metalclad Corp., [2001] 89 B.C.L.R.3d 359, ¶¶ 68, 93.
243. Id. ¶ 199.
244. Id. ¶ 133.
245. Id. ¶¶ 135-36.
246. In addition, the concerns raised by the Metalclad panel's expansive interpretation led the NAFTA Free Trade Commission in July of 2001 to issue "Notes of Interpretation of Certain Chapter 11 Provisions." The notes address, among other things, Article 1105, and state that the phrase "the minimum standard of treatment in accordance with international law" in Article 1105(1) refers to the customary international law minimum standard of treatment. The notes further state that "a determination that there has been a breach of another provision of the NAFTA, or of a separate international agreement, does not establish that there has been a breach of Article 1105(1)." See http://www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/tna-nac/ NAFFA-Interpr-en.asp.
247. TECMED v. United Mexican States, 43 I.L.M. 133 (2004).
248. Id. at 137-38.
249. Id. at 138.
250. Id. at 157.
251. Id. at 144.
252. TECMED, 43 I.L.M. at 164.
253. Id. at 138.
254. Id. at 160.
255. Id. at 159.
256. Id.
257. TECMED, 43 I.L.M. at 159-60.
258. Id. at 160.
259. Id. at 160-61.
260. Id. at 163.
261. Id. at 173.
262. TECMED, 43 I.L.M. at 167-68.
263. Id.
264. Id. at 172.
265. Id. at 166-67.
266. Id. at 164.
267. I.L.M. 91 (2005).
268. Id. at 92.
269. MTD Equity's proposal contemplated "a township of 600 hectares of Fundo El Principal de Prique, which will be a self-sufficient satellite city, with houses, apartments for diverse socioeconomic strata, schools, hospitals, universities, supermarkets, commerce of all sorts, services, and all other components of necessary self-sufficiency." Id. at 97.
270. Id. at 97-98.
271. Id. at 118.
272. MTD Equity, 44 I.L.M. at 100-01.
273. Id. at 116.
274. Id. at 106.
275. Id. at 105-06, 122-23.
276. Id. at 118.
277. MTD Equity, 44 I.L.M. at 111.
278. Id. at 99.
279. Id.
280. Id. at 120.
281. I.L.M. 85 (2003).
282. The "combat zone" was an adult entertainment district in downtown Boston. Wikipedia, Combat Zone, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Combat_zone (last visited Nov. 22, 2005).
283. Mondev, 42 I.L.M. at 92.
284. Id.
285. Chris Mooney, In Our Own Backyard, The Phoenix, available at http:// www.bostonphoenix.com/boston/news_features/top/features/documents/ 01791880.htm (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
286. Mondev, 42 I.L.M. 85.
287. Lafayette Place Assocs. v. Boston Redev. Auth., 694 N.E.2d 820 (Mass. 1998).
288. Id. at 829-30.
289. Id. at 836.
290. Mondev, 42 I.L.M. at 86.
291. Id. at 98.
292. Id.
293. Id. at 115.
294. Id. at 93.
295. Mondev, 42 I.L.M. at 98.
296. Id. at 115.
297. Been & Beauvais, supra note 177.
298. World Charter of Local Self Government 4(4). See United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat) World Associations of Cities and Local Authorities Coordination, Towards a World Charter of Local Self Government, http://www.gdrc.org/u-gov/charter.html (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
299. Given the range of interventions that the international legal system is presently engaged in, the commentary that critiques NAFTA because it intrudes on local sovereignty therefore seems to us too narrow.
300. UCLG Constitution, supra note 8, at Preamble.
301. Local Rule, supra note 161, at 8.
302. UN-Habitat's Strategic Vision is exemplary of this vision of consensus. See Strategic Vision, supra note 170.
303. See Best Practices, supra note 7.
304. UCLG Final Declaration, supra note 10, ¶ 131.
305. Richard Sennett, The Conscience of the Eye: The Design and Social Life of Cities 41 (1990).
306. Hendrik Hartog, Public Property and Private Power: The Corporation of the City of New York in American Law (1993).
307. Sennett, supra note 268, at 53.
308. Id. at 55.
309. For an account of this debate, see Barron, Reclaiming Home Rule, supra note 18, at 2309-21.
310. Id. at 2300-09.
311. Guido Martinotti, A City for Whom? Transients and Public Life in the Second-Generation Metropolis, in Robert Beauragard & Sophie Body-Gendrot, The Urban Movement: Cosmopolitan Essays on the Late-20th-Century City 160-65 (1999).
312. Id. at 160-62.
313. Id.
314. Id. at 165.
315. Sam Bass Warner, The Private City: Philadelphia in Three Periods of Growth (1968).
316. Id. at x.
317. Id. at 4.
318. Cities in Transition, supra note 157, at 2.
319. Id. at 8.
320. See id. at 8-12.
321. Id. at 1.
322. Id. at 11, 12, 14, 16, 22.
323. The Cities Alliance, About Cities Alliance, http:// www.citiesalliance.org/about-ca/about-ca.html (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
324. The Cities Alliance, 2004 Annual Report, available at http://www.cities alliance.org/doc/annual-reports/2004/2004-annual-report.pdf (last visited Nov. 21, 2005).
325. Id. at 4.
326. Id. at 3.
327. Id. at 7.
328. Strategic Vision, supra note 170, at 10.
329. Id. at 2 (Summary).
330. See supra Section II.B(2)(a).
331. UCLG Final Declaration, supra note 10, at § 21.
332. See id.
333. Id. at 25.
334. Id.
335. Id. at 36.
336. Rittich, supra note 88, at 23.
337. David Kennedy, The Dark Side of Virtue 11 (2004).
338. Le-Yin Zhang, Economic Development in Shanghai and the Role of the State, 40 Urb. Stud. 1549 (2003);
339. Tingwei Zhang, Urban Development and a Socialist Pro-Growth Coalition in Shanghai, 37 Urb. Aff. Rev. 475 (2002).
340. For an overview, see Douglas Guthrie, Globalizaton and China: Local Governments, Multinational Corporations, and the Transformation of the Chinese Society (forthcoming 2006).
341. In addition, NAFTA itself, for all of the limits on local power it may impose, has spurred an international city network aimed at establishing a so-called NAFTA highway that would run from Mexico to Canada.
342. Gerald E. Frug, City Making: Building Cities Without Building Walls (1999).
343. David Barron, Gerald Frug & Rick Su, The Myth of Home Rule (2004).
344. See Robert Beauregard, Theorizing the Global-Local Connection, in World Cities in A World System, supra note 6, at 240-43.
345. Id. at 242.