Reconstructing embedded liberalism: John Gerard Ruggie and constructivist approaches to the study of the international trade regime

Journal of International Economic Law

Volumn 9, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 81-116

  Lang, Andrew T F ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 33645324462     PISSN: 13693034     EISSN: 14643758     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jiel/jgi057     Document Type: Review

References (180)

1. J. G. Ruggie, 'International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism and the Post-war Economic Order', 36 (2) International Organization 379 (1982). It was published the following year as part of an edited collection in international regimes,
2. see J. G. Ruggie, 'International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism and the Postwar Economic Order', in S. D. Krasner (ed.), International Regimes, (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 1983) 195.
3. The same article was also published in a slightly edited form in Ruggie's 1998 collection of earlier writings: J. G. Ruggie, Constructing the World Polity: Essays on International Institutionalisation, (1998). Throughout this article, I will be referring almost exclusively to the 1983 version.
4. S. D. Krasner, 'Structural Causes and Regime Consequences: Regimes as Intervening Variables', in S. D. Krasner (ed.), International Regimes, (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 1983) 1 at 17.
5. Ruggie, Constructing the World Polity, above n 1, at 62.
6. See below n 34-35 and accompanying text.
7. J. L. Dunoff, ' "Trade and": Recent Developments in Trade Policy and Scholarship - And Their Surprising Political Implications', 17 (2/3) Northwestern Journal of International Law and Business 759 (1997);
8. J. L. Dunoff, 'Rethinking International Trade', 19 (2) University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Economic Law 347 (1998);
9. J. L. Dunoff, 'The Death of the Trade Regime', 10 (4) European Journal of International Law 733 (1999).
10. See, for example, J. H. Knox, 'The Judicial Resolution of Conflicts Between Trade and the Environment', 28 (1) Harvard Environmental Law Review 1 (2004).
11. For a selection of Ruggie's work, see the material referred to in n 1 above, as well as J. G. Ruggie and F. Kratochwil, 'International Organization: a State of the Art on an Art of the State', 40 (4) International Organization 753 (1986);
12. J. G. Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism Revisited' in E. Adler and B. Crawford (eds), Progress in Postwar International Relations, (1991) 202;
13. J. G. Ruggie (ed.), Multilateralism Matters: The Theory and Praxis of an Institutional Form, (1993);
14. J. G. Ruggie, 'At Home Abroad, Abroad at Home: International Liberalisation and Domestic Stability in the New World Economy', 24 (3) Millennium 507 (1994);
15. J. G. Ruggie, 'Trade, Protectionism and the Future of Welfare Capitalism', 48 (1) Journal of International Affairs - Columbia University 1 (1994);
16. J. G. Ruggie, 'Globalization and the Embedded Liberalism Compromise: The End of an Era?', in W. Streeck (ed.), Internationale Wirtschaft, Nationale Demokratie, (1998);
17. J.G. Ruggie, 'Taking Embedded Liberalism Global: The Corporate Connection', in D. Held and M. Koenig-Archibugi (eds), Taming Globalization: Frontiers of Governance, (2003).
18. Important exceptions include K. W. Abbott, ' "Economic" Issues and Political Participation: The Evolving Boundaries of International Federalism', 18 (3) Cardozo Law Review 971 (1996)
19. and perhaps Drake and Nicolaïdis, 'Ideas, Interests and Institutionalization: "Trade in Services" and the Uruguay Round', 46 (1) International Organization 37 (1992).
20. As I understand it, R. Howse, 'From Politics to Technocracy - and Back Again: The Fate of the Multilateral Trading Regime', 96 (1) American Journal of International Law 94 (2002) also owes an intellectual debt to various versions of constructivist thought, as do various publication of Jeffrey Dunoff, referred to below.
21. Some important steps down that road have already been made by Nichols, who has, with great clarity, introduced trade lawyers to the schools of historical and sociological institutionalism, both of which (particularly the latter) are intellectual cousins of constructivist approaches in IR, see P. M. Nichols, 'Forgotten Linkages - Historical Institutionalism and Sociological Institutionalism and Analysis of the World Trade Organization', 19 (2) University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Economic Law 461 (1998).
22. When, in this article, I describe rules, ideas, narratives or particular social processes as 'constitutive' of behaviour, I mean that these rules and the like provide the conditions in which such behaviour is given meaning and made thinkable and (therefore) possible. This is different from a situation in which rules etc. regulate the pursuit of pre-constituted interests. See further section IV(A).
23. The special issue was published later as an edited collection: S. D. Krasner (ed.), International Regimes, (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 1983).
24. Krasner, above n 2, at 1.
25. All citations in this paragraph are to Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism', above n 1, at 196.
26. In fact, Ruggie sets out three different theoretical arguments at this point, but as he himself notes all three 'stand or fall together', as they all ultimately 'lead back to [his] depiction of international authority as reflecting a fusion of power and legitimate social purpose'. Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism', Ibid, at 200.
27. S. D. Krasner, 'State Power and the Structure of International Trade', 28 World Politics 317 (1976), at 318;
28. see also C. Lipson, 'The Transformation of Trade: the Sources and Effects of Regime Change' in S. D. Krasner (ed.), International Regimes, (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 1983) 233 at 254.
29. Lipson, above n 15, at 254. To be clear, Lipson is not an advocate of hegemonic stability theory, he is merely explaining its contours in the cited passage.
30. This short summary of hegemonic stability theory (HST), while fairly standard in the literature, inevitably fails to capture the theory's subtleties. For the seminal work on HST, see C. P. Kindleberger, The World in Depression, 1929-1939, (1973).
31. Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism', above n 1, at 201.
32. Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism', Ibid, at 198.
33. Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism', at 201. Ibid.
34. Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism', Ibid, at 202.
35. K. Polanyi, Origins of Our Time: the Great Transformation, (1945).
36. Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism', above n 1, at 202.
37. Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism', Ibid, at 208.
38. Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism', Ibid, at 209.
39. Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism', at 209. Ibid.
40. Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism', Ibid, at 221.
41. Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism', above n 1, at 212.
42. Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism', Ibid, at 214.
43. Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism', at 214. Ibid, footnote in original omitted.
44. For the purposes of this summary, I have skipped over Part 3 of Ruggie's article, which essentially describes how the character of international trade flows themselves seemed to reflect and facilitate the vision of embedded liberalism: Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism', Ibid, at 214.
45. Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism', Ibid, at 228. Ruggie develops this argument in later articles, see n 7 above.
46. Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism', above n 1, at 229.
47. See, e.g., D. Rodrik and Institute for International Economics, Has Globalization Gone Too Far?, (1997),
48. also Rodrik's contribution in J. S. Nye and J. D. Donahue, Governance in a Globalizing World, (2000).
49. E. B. Kapstein, 'Workers and the World Economy', 75(3) Foreign Affairs 16 (1996);
50. J. Bhagwati, 'Fear Not: The Global Economy and American Wages', The New Republic 36 (1997)
51. and R. O. Keohane, 'The World Political Economy and the Crisis of Embedded Liberalism', in J. H. Goldthorpe (ed.), Order and Conflict in Contemporary Capitalism, (1984) 15 offer similar readings (at least for these purposes) as Rodrik. Ruggie has revisited the embedded liberalism story in at least five articles since the 1990s; see n 7 above.
52. See the three articles referred to in n 5 above as well as J. L. Dunoff, 'The Global Market as Friend or Foe of Human Rights', 25 (1) Brooklyn Journal of International Law 125 (1999).
53. See, e.g., Dunoff, 'The Death of the Trade Regime', above n 5, at 738.
54. Dunoff, 'Rethinking International Trade', above n 5, at 377ff.
55. Howse, above n 8.
56. Ibid, at 97.
57. Ibid, at 101.
58. See also R. Howse and K. Nicolaïdis, 'Legitimacy through "Higher Law"? Why Constitutionalizing the WTO is a Step Too Far', in T. Cottier and P. C. Mavroidis (eds), The Role of the Judge in International Trade Regulation: Experience and Lessons for the WTO, (2003) 307 for an expanded account of this vision.
59. By way of illustration: a Lexis search on the phrase 'embedded liberalism' yields about 70 results, of which about half are substantive (more than passing) references to Ruggie's article.
60. D. Kalderimis, 'Problems of WTO Harmonization and the Virtues of Shields over Swords', 13 (2) Minnesota Journal of Global Trade 305 (2004), at 314.
61. R. H. Steinberg, 'Judicial Lawmaking at the WTO: Discursive, Constitutional, and Political Constraints', American Journal of International Law 247 (2004), at 262.
62. Knox, above n 6, at 47. This is advanced as part of his broader argument that trade jurisprudence has become 'greened' in part because of the Appellate Body's responsiveness to a variety of state interests.
63. D. Winickoff et al., 'Adjudicating the GM Food Wars: Science, Risk, and Democracy in World Trade Law', 30 Yale Journal of International Law 81 (2005), at 107.
64. J. T. Gathii, 'Re-characterizing the Social in the Constitutionalization of the WTO: A Preliminary Analysis', 7 Widener Law Symposium Journal 137 (2001).
65. S. Cho, Free Markets and Social Regulation: A Reform Agenda of the Global Trading System; Toward a New International Economic Law, (2003) 629 and n9.
66. Two other early references to embedded liberalism are Abbott, above n 8 (on which I will draw later), and in G. R. Shell, 'Trade Legalism and International Relations Theory: an Analysis of the World Trade Organization', 44 (5) Duke Law Journal 829 (1995).
67. Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism', above n 1, at 214.
68. See Howse, above n 8, at 110.
69. See ibid;
70. also Steinberg, above n 45.
71. See, e.g., R. Howse, 'The Canadian Generic Medicines Panel-A Dangerous Precedent in Dangerous Times', 3 (4) Journal of World Intellectual Property 493 (2000).
72. Ilg shares this emphasis of mine on the way embedded liberalism opens up what it is possible to imagine: 'Embedded liberalism reflects a shared belief in the need to promote international stability through transparency and predictability, while at the same time maintaining the ability of states to pursue what Ruggie terms "legitimate social purpose." While policymakers have given up on the ideal of compromise, it is possible to conceive of a system that has been built on socially determined policies instead of one that competitively strips them away'. See M. Ilg, 'Environmental Harm and Dilemmas of Self-Interest: Does International Law Exhibit Collective Learning?', 18 Tulane Environmental Law Journal 59 (2004), at 92.
73. Cf. Howse, above n 8.
74. M. Finnemore, National Interests in International Society, (1996) 135.
75. Dunoff, 'Death, Dumping and Domestic Courts: Private Enforcement of WTO Norms', forthcoming. These ideas were also presented by Professor Dunoff at the British Institute's International and Comparative Law's Fifth Annual WTO Conference, 17 May 2005.
76. See, e.g., Kalderimis, above n 44;
77. Steinberg, above n 45;
78. Winickoff et al., above n 47,
79. as well as the remarks of Sanford Gaines referred to in F. M. Abbott, 'International Trade and Social Welfare: The New Agenda', 17 Comparative Labor Law Journal 338 (1996).
80. Howse, above n 8, is clearly the outstanding example of this kind of account in current trade law scholarship.
81. I am referring here to the so-called 'linkage' debate. There is a very large literature on linkage issues, but important published symposia include: 'The Boundaries of the WTO' 96 (1) American Journal of International Law (2002);
82. 'Linkage as Phenomenon: Linking the Trade Linkage Debate' 19 University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Economic Law (1998);
83. 'Institutional Conundrums of an Expanded Trade Regime' 7 Widener Law Symposium Journal (2001), among others.
84. See, e.g., the Symposium entitled 'The Boundaries of the WTO', papers from which are published in 96 (1) American Journal of International Law (2002).
85. See, e.g., F. M. Abbott, T. Cottier and J. H. Jackson, 'The Limits of International Trade: Workers' Protection, the Environment and Other Human Rights', Proceedings of the American Society of International Law 2000 (2000), 219.
86. Steinberg, above n 45, 262.
87. Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism', above n 1 at 213.
88. Ibid at 238. But compare his later writings, n 7 above.
89. J. Goldstein and R. O. Keohane, 'Ideas and Foreign Policy: An Analytical Framework', in J. Goldstein and R. O. Keohane (eds), Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions, and Political Change, (1993) 3 at 17.
90. See Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism', above n 1, at 213. The argument that I am making here mirrors that of Howse, above n 8, at 116.
91. Howse does make the important point, however, that this enabling role did exist: Howse, above n 8, at 95.
92. Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism', above n 1, at 213.
93. An important example might be P. M. Nichols, 'Trade Without Values', 90 (2) Northwestern University Law Review 658 (1996).
94. Howse, above n 8, at 116.
95. See, e.g., Dunoff, 'The Death of the Trade Regime', above n 5, at 751.
96. A. Blackett, 'Toward Social Regionalism in the Americas', 23 Comparative Labor Law And Policy Journal 901 (2002), at 911.
97. Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism', above n 1, at 209.
98. S. Dillon, 'A Farewell to "Linkage": International Trade Law and Global Sustainability Indicators', 55 (1) Rutgers Law Review 87 (2002), at 152.
99. L. Anell and B. Nygren, The Developing Countries and the World Economic Order, (1980);
100. Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism', above n 1, at 229;
101. D. Tussie and D. Glover, The Developing Countries in World Trade: Policies and Bargaining Strategies, (1993);
102. J. Hills, 'A Global Industrial Policy: US Hegemony and the GATT', 1 (2) Review of International Political Economy 257 (1994);
103. and Tussie's contribution in C. Murphy and R. Tooze, The New International Political Economy, (1991).
104. G. M. Meier, Emerging from Poverty: the Economics that Really Matters, (1984) 11.
105. Dunoff, 'Rethinking International Trade', above n 5.
106. The term 'reflectivist' was coined by Keohane in 'International Institutions: Two Approaches', 32 International Studies Quarterly 379 (1988), but constructivist is more commonly used today.
107. It was, by all accounts, first used in relation to IR theory by Onuf in World of Our Making: Rules and Rule in Social Theory and International Relations, (1989).
108. Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism', above n 1, at 33.
109. Krasner, above n 2, at 2.
110. The passage I use here is a very slightly modified version included in Ruggie's 1998 collection of his own essays: Ruggie, Constructing the World Polity, above n 1, at 63. While the changes are minor (less than ten words and the inclusion of a new paragraph break), they tend to make the passage clearer.
111. B. A. Simmons and L. L. Martin, 'International Organizations and Institutions', in W. Carlsnaes, T. Risse-Kappen and B. A. Simmons (eds), Handbook of International Relations, (2002) 192 at 198.
112. I take this formulation from Ruggie, Constructing the World Polity, above n 1, at 20.
113. Ruggie, Constructing the World Polity, Ibid, at 37.
114. See also A. Wendt, Social Theory of International Politics (1999) 160 and surrounding for a useful discussion of intersubjectivity and related concepts.
115. Ruggie, Constructing the World Polity, above n 1, 96.
116. Ruggie, Constructing the World Polity, Ibid, at 21.
117. This terminology is relatively widely used; a good discussion is Ruggie, Constructing the World Polity, ibid, at 22.
118. This example comes from the work of John Searle, referred to in Ruggie, Constructing the World Polity, ibid, at 22.
119. Ruggie, Constructing the World Polity, at 22. Ibid.
120. By separating these two, I am not suggesting that they do not mutually influence one another (indeed, that is the whole point). See generally, ibid, at 12.
121. F. Kratochwil, 17 (2) Millenium Journal of International Studies 263 (1988), at 277.
122. Ruggie, Constructing the World Polity, above n 1, at 98.
123. For example, it is possible to see the linkage debate as an attempt by trade lawyers to talk about the intersubjective dimension of the trade regime. That debate is characterized by talk of the 'ethos', 'spirit' and 'values' of the regime. Attention to Ruggie's theoretical framework can help us to identify precisely what it is that we are talking about.
124. For a fascinating argument grounded in a concept of law as communicative practice, see S. Cho, 'The WTO's Gemeinschaft', 56 Alabama Law Review 483 (2004).
125. This observation has been made on a number of occasions by other commentators: J. Goldstein, 'Ideas, Institutions, and American Trade Policy', 42 (1) International Organization 179 (1988), at 180;
126. J. Goldstein, Ideas, Interests, and American Trade Policy, (1993) 238;
127. Abbott, above n 8.
128. See, e.g., A. M. Slaughter, A. S. Tulumello and S. Wood, 'International Law and International Relations Theory: A New Generation of Interdisciplinary Scholarship', 92 (3) American Journal of International Law 367 (1998), at 376;
129. Steinberg, above n 45;
130. F. M. Abbott, 'The WTO Medicines Decision: World Pharmaceutical Trade and the Protection of Public Health', 99 (2) American Journal Of International Law 317 (2005). It is worth noting also that there are few realists nowadays who see international institutions as purely epiphenomenal.
131. S. D. Krasner, 'Regimes and the Limits of Realism: Regimes as Autonomous Variables', in S. D. Krasner (ed.), International Regimes (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 1983) 355 at 364.
132. Goldstein, 'Ideas, Institutions', above n 98, at 180;
133. H. V. Milner, 'International Trade', in W. Carlsnaes, T. Risse-Kappen and B.A. Simmons (eds), Handbook of International Relations, (2002) 448 at 450;
134. Abbott, above n 8. A distinction should be drawn between what I am referring here to as liberal IR theorists and their 'neo' counterparts, who are often criticized for 'black-boxing' the state. See Finnemore, above n 56, 143. (There is also the question of how those interests are meditated by different domestic political institutions - which may give greater or lesser scope for pressure groups to affect decision-making.)
135. For a small selection, see Slaughter, Tulumello and Wood, above n 99;
136. K. W. Abbott, 'International Relations Theory, International Law, and the Regime Governing Atrocities in Internal Conflicts', 93 (2) American Journal of International Law 361 (1999);
137. J. Brunnee and S. J. Toope, 'International Law and Constructivism: Elements of an Interactional Theory of International Law', 39 (1) Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 19 (2000)
138. as well as various contributions to O. A. Hathaway and H. H. Koh, Foundations of International Law and Politics, (2005).
139. I take the terms 'material' and 'ideational' from standard terminology in debates common to IR theory (e.g., Wendt, above n 87, at 32).
140. Goldstein, 'Ideas, Institutions', above n 98;
141. Goldstein, Ideas, Interests, above n 98;
142. J. Goldstein and R. O. Keohane, Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions, and Political Change, (1993).
143. Others include R. Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics, (1976);
144. R. Little, S. Smith and A British International Studies (eds), Belief Systems and International Relations, (1988);
145. B. Weingast, 'A Rational Choice Perspective on the Role of Ideas: Shared Belief Systems and State Sovereignty in International Co-operation', 23 Politics and Society 449 (1995);
146. N. Woods, 'Economic Ideas and International Relations: Beyond Rational Neglect', 39 International Studies Quarterly 161 (1995).
147. Dunoff, 'Rethinking International Trade', above n 5, 377.
148. See Goldstein, Ideas, Interests, above n 98, at 9;
149. Ruggie, Constructing the World Polity, above n 1, 17;
150. Wendt, above n 87, 118.
151. Abbott, above n 8, 974.
152. Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism', above n 1, at 213.
153. Abbott, above n 8.
154. Goldstein, Ideas, Interests, above n 98, at 240. Goldstein is referring to change in these meanings in the context of a discussion of domestic institutions, but the same point is applicable.
155. Drake and Nicolaïdis, above n 8.
156. This is a very common story. For a typical example, see G. Verhoosel, National Treatment and WTO Dispute Settlement: Adjudicating the Boundaries of Regulatory Autonomy, (2002) 4.
157. Ruggie, 'Embedded Liberalism', above n 1, at 202.
158. For a similar argument in a different context, see D. H. Lumsdaine, Moral Vision in International Politics: the Foreign Aid Regime, 1949-1989, (1993).
159. G. J. Ikenberry, 'A World Economy Restored: Expert Consensus and the Anglo-American Postwar Settlement', 46 (1) International Organization 289 (1992), 318. See also, at 297: 'Although these experts shared a set of economic beliefs, it was only in the process of planning and negotiation that they came to possess a common identity and purpose'.
160. The literature on epistemic communities is most closely associated with the work of Peter Haas, see, e.g., P. M. Haas, 'Introduction. Epistemic Communities and International Policy Co-ordination', 46 (1) International Organization 1 (1992), as well as the contributions to that entire issue of International Organization.
161. A good example of the way embedded liberalism has be retold through a functionalist paradigm might D. Zaring, 'International Law by Other Means: The Twilight Existence of International Financial Regulatory Organizations', 33 (2) Texas International Law Journal 281 (1998), at 311: 'under this analysis [ie, analysis drawing on embedded liberalism], each state balances the interests of groups opposed to and in favor of free trade and is willing to participate in international economic institutions because free trade structures are embedded within an international framework recognizing the need for states to exercise political control over the distributional consequences of global economic change'.
162. Other examples include: A. Maravel, 'Constructing Democracy in the North American Free Trade Area', 16 (3) Northwestern Journal Of International Law And Business 331 (1996), at 406;
163. Gathii, above n 48, 149.
164. In Driesen's schema, free trade may firstly be understood as 'trade free from discrimination'. He identifies this concept of 'non-discriminatory trade' as underpinning, e.g., GATT Article III. Secondly, free trade may be understood also as trade free from economic burden: 'trade free of national regulation . . . unencumbered by national laws that might increase prices'. Driesen refers to this as the 'laissez-faire concept' of free trade. Finally, free trade may be understood as 'trade free from international coercion', or, in other words, trade free from sanctions designed to coerce other countries into adopting particular policies or positions. He sees this concept of free trade in the Appellate Body's Shrimp/Turtle decisions. See D. M. Driesen, 'What is Free Trade?: The Real Issue Lurking Behind the Trade and Environment Debate', 41 (2) Virginia Journal of International Law 279 (2001), at 300.
165. See above n 60.
166. See Lang, 'Whose Trade Values? What Trade Issues? Dereifying the Trade Linkage Debate', forthcoming.
167. I owe this point to Professor Dunoff, personal communication, 9 September 2005, referring to his forthcoming paper.
168. This terminology is taken from Krasner, above n 2. In addition, most commentators would, if pressed, agree with the limited circumstances in which the trade regime acts as an independent or autonomous causal variable; Krasner, above n 100.
169. See generally, Ruggie, above n; Slaughter, Tulumello and Wood, above n 99; Wendt, above n 87; Simmons and Martin, above n 84 for some general descriptions of constructivist approaches to this issue.
170. Wendt, above n 87, at 176.
171. Ibid, at 119.
172. I take this formulation from ibid, at 122.
173. E. B. Haas, 'Words can hurt you; or, who said what to whom about regimes', in S. D. Krasner (ed.), International Regimes, (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 1983) 23;
174. E. B. Haas, When Knowledge is Power: Three Models of Change in International Organizations, (1990); Wendt, above above n 87, 12ff; Simmons and Martin, above n 84, at 198, among many others.
175. D. K. Tarullo, 'Logic, Myth, and the International Economic Order', 26 Harvard International Law Journal 533 (1985);
176. D. Kennedy, 'Turning to Market Democracy: A Tale of Two Architectures', 32 (3) Harvard International Law Journal 373 (1991).
177. Finnemore, above n 56;
178. M. Finnemore, 'Norms, Culture, and World Politics: Insights from Sociology's Institutionalism', 50 (2) International Organization 325 (1996).
179. See also Ruggie, Constructing the World Polity, above n 1, at 15.
180. Ruggie, Constructing the World Polity, above n 1, at 19.