Catholic doctrine versus women's rights: The new Italian law on assisted reproduction

Medical Law Review

Volumn 14, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 73-107

  Fenton, Rachel Anne ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST OF ENGLAND   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CRIME; EMBRYO; FEMALE; FEMINISM; HEALTH CARE DELIVERY; HUMAN; INFERTILITY THERAPY; INFORMED CONSENT; ITALY; LEGAL ASPECT; LESBIAN; RELIGION; WOMEN'S RIGHTS;

CATHOLICISM; CRIME; EMBRYO; FEMALE; FEMINISM; HEALTH SERVICES ACCESSIBILITY; HOMOSEXUALITY, FEMALE; HUMANS; INFORMED CONSENT; ITALY; RELIGION AND MEDICINE; REPRODUCTIVE TECHNIQUES, ASSISTED; WOMEN'S RIGHTS;

EID: 33644983012     PISSN: 09670742     EISSN: 14643790     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/medlaw/fwi041     Document Type: Article

References (116)

1. Any legal issues arising in this area had to be resolved by analogical interpretation of the civil code of 1942.
2. Relazione della XII Commissione Permanente 26.3.02 C. 47-A, at 1; http://www.camera.it/_dati/leg14/lavori/stampati/sk0500/frontesp/ 00470a.htm.
3. Law 40/2004.
4. La Repubblica 1.12.03.
5. Article 21 of Law 326/2003 - 'Per ogni figlio nato dal 1 dicembre 2003 e fino al 31 dicembre 2004, secondo od ulteriore per ordine di nascita, e, comunque, per ogni figlio adottato net medesimo periodo... è concesso un assegno pari ad euro 1.000.'
6. L. Nielson, 'Legal Consensus and Divergence in Europe in the Area of Assisted Conception - Room for Harmonisation?' in D. Evans (ed.), Creating the Child (Martinus Nijhoff 1996) at 305-25
7. T. Hervey, 'Buy Baby: The European Union and Regulation of Human Reproduction' (1998) IS O.J.L.S. 207
8. M. Latham, 'European Assisted Conception Regulation: The Centrality of the Embryo' in A. Morris and S. Nott (eds), Well Women (Ashgate 2002) at 79-96.
9. Statistics reported in La Repubblica 25.5.05. Reproductive tourism originating in Italy dramatically increased by between 50 and 60 per cent according to the Director of a treatment centre in Salonicco, Il Corriere della Sera 7.6.04.
10. See Nielson, Hervey and Latham, all op.cit. supra, n. 6. Note that the House of Commons Science and Technology Committee considered reproductive tourism and concluded that attempts to curtail it 'would not be justified by the seriousness of the offence, and, moreover, would be impossible to enforce'.
11. See 'Review of the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act: A Public Consultation'; http://www.dh.gov.uk/assetRoot/04/11/78/72/04117872.pdf At 2.59.
12. For a detailed exposition of EU law, see Hervey, op.cit. supra, n. 6.
13. Note that the EU Tissue Directive regulates common standards of safety and quality.
14. Italy, for example, was one of the most advanced countries in Europe in pre-implantation genetic diagnosis; http://www.report.rai.it/2liv.asp?s=203.
15. La Repubblica 9.12.03 and 29.5.04.
16. E. Scalfari, 'Tra divieti e cattiva coscienza ritorna la morale di Stato' (Editorial) La Repubblica 11.12.03.
17. See e.g. Incontro sulla Procreazione Medicalmente Assistita; http://www.libreriadelledonne.it/news/articoli/circolo310505.htm at 3.
18. See Scalfari, op.cit. supra, n. 13.
19. 'Doctrinal note on some questions regarding the participation of Catholics in political life'; http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/ rc_con_cfaith_doc_20021124_po_politica_en.html.
20. Constitutional Court 45/2005.
21. See e.g. statements made by Cardinal Camillo Ruini, President of the Italian Episcopal Conference (Confererenza episcopale italiana), La Repubblica 7.3.05 and 23.5.05. One local priest even offered a day trip to the beach paid for by the Church for those who did not vote, La Repubblica 23.5.05.
22. Referendums are provided for by Article 75 of the Constitution and actuating legislation Law 352/1970. Under Article 36 of the latter, a majority of those having the right to vote is required to make it quorate.
23. This was despite the initial collection of an historically significant four million signatures in favour of holding a referendum, a million and a half more than were necessary, La Repubblica 1.10.04.
24. See La Repubblica 24.5.05, 13.6.05 and 14.6.05.
25. Cossutta report C. 47 A-bis at 1. See infra, n. 36.
26. Valpiana report C. 47 A-quarter at 1. See infra, n. 36.
27. See discussion below.
28. Op.cit. supra, n. 8 at 4-5.
29. House of Commons Science and Technology Committee, 'Human Reproductive Technologies and the Law', Fifth Report of Session 2004-5, H.C. 7-1.
30. Dr Ian Gibson, MP, Chairman of the House of Commons Committee stated that 'Critics of our report have described it as ultra-libertarian, which sounds as if it should be an insult. Why belief in liberty should be seen as extreme is beyond me.'; http://www.bionews.org.uk/commentary.lasso?storyid=2499.
31. The recommendations included allowing sex selection for social reasons; lifting the ban into germline gene therapy; permitting the creation of hybrid embryos for research purposes; eliminating the 'welfare of the child' provisions and creating a different regulation of pre-implantation genetic diagnosis.
32. See The Times 19.8.05.
33. S. Sheldon, Quintavalle (on behalf of Comment on Reproductive Ethics) v. H.F E.A. [2005] U.K.H.L. 28 http://www.prochoiceforum.org.uk/irl_rep_tec_4.asp.
34. Ibid.
35. There have been several (1985, 1987, 1992, 1997, 2001) administrative Circulars issued by the Ministry of Health, but these were only applicable to the public sector National Health Service. Interestingly, the emphasis on homologous reproduction is found in the very fast of these, along with limitation of treatment to the married couple, restriction of fertilisation of embryos to that number to be implanted immediately and prohibitions on cryopreservation.
36. Valpiana report C. 47-A-quarter, at 1. See infra, n. 36.
37. The situation can be contrasted with the united front formed against the Unborn. Children (Protection) Bills of the mid-1980s in the UK.
38. Relazione della XII Commissione Permanente, op.cit. supra, n. 2.
39. These reports will hereafter be identified by the name of the speaker. Thus, the report of the majority within the Commission was authored by Bianchi (c.47-A) and will be called the Bianchi report. The other three dissenting reports, which were therefore in the minority, each took a different view and proposed different legislative alternatives. They were authored by Cossutta (c.47-A-bis), Cima (c.47-A-ter) and Valpiana (c.47-A-quarter).
40. Provided for by Article 7 of Law 40/2004. Linee Guida Contenenti le Indicazioni delle Procedure e delle Techniche di Procreazione Medicalmente Assistita; http://www.ministerodellasalute.it.
41. Dm Salute e Giustizia 336/04 in Gu 42, 21.2.05.
42. 1987 Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith; http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/ rc_con_cfaith_doc_198702.
43. Ibid. at 10.
44. Ibid. at 5.
45. Ibid. at 15.
46. S. McClean, 'Women, Rights and Reproduction' in S. McLean (ed.), Legal Issues in Human Reproduction (Dartmouth 1990) at 215.
47. M. Stanworth, 'Reproductive Technologies and the Deconstruction of Motherhood' in M. Stanworth (ed.), Reproductive Technologies: Gender, Motherhood and Medicine (Polity 1987) at 18.
48. Ibid. at 15-16.
49. See also introductory chapter of G. Douglas, Law, Fertility and Reproduction (Sweet and Maxwell 1991).
50. Stanworth, op.cit. supra, n. 44 at 18.
51. For contrast and a detailed account of French and UK feminism, see M. Latham, Regulating Reproduction: A Century of Conflict in Britain and France (Manchester University Press 2002).
52. T. Tobaldi, 'Prime riflessioni su femminismo e biotecnologie'; http://www.universitadelledonne.it/tizpma.htm at 2.
53. Women's Bookshop, Milan. The Libreria has been described as 'a significant point of reference for any political and theoretical debate in the feminist movement' in P. Bono (ed.), Italian Feminist Thought (Basil Blackwell 1991) at 109.
54. See generally Chapter 5.
55. '[C]'è stata un'abdicazione delle politica delle donne, perché di quests questione non si è molto discusso nelle sedi della riflessione femminile e femminista'. From Incontro sulla Procreazione Medicalmente Assistita; http://www.libreriadelledonne.it/news/articoli/circolo310505.htm at 3.
56. 'Il femminismo, inspiegabilmente silenzioso su questioni che lo interpellano direttamente, come la legge sulla fecondazione assistita', L. Melandri, 'Il femminismo è ancora in silenzio' Liberazione 10.12.04; http://www.universitadelledonne.it/silenzio.htm.
57. The Women's University is a women's cultural organisation.
58. See e.g. 'Procreazione Assistita: Tre incontri sulla "legge crudele" (non solo per le donne)'; http://www.donnealtri.it/articoli/anima_corpo/2004/gennaio/ leggecrudele.html at 2.
59. Note that some feminists deny that there has been any such 'failure', see e.g. E. Cirant, 'Il movimento femminista degli anni '70 non c'è più? È evidente: Siamo nel 2005!; http://www.universitadelledonne.it/cirant.htm.
60. Both are leading figures of Italian feminism, see generally P. Bono op.cit. supra, n. 49.
61. La reticenza femminile in questo accanimento di desiderio di maternità è qualcosa che poche hanno osato tirare fuori, ma che molte abbiamo in mente. L. Muraro, op.cit. supra, n. 14 at 4.
62. Ibid.
63. L. Melandri, op.cit. supra, n.51 at 2.
64. E. Cirant, op.cit. supra, n. 54 at 2.
65. P, di Cori, 'Femminismo, c'è bisogno di un ricambio'; http://www.universitadelledonne.it/ricambio.htm at 2.
66. D. Morgan, Issues in Medical Law and Ethics (Cavendish 2001) at 64.
67. E. Jackson, Regulating Reproduction: Law, Technology and Autonomy (Hart 2001) at 175. Summaries of feminist positions can be found ibid. at 174-82
68. C. Mackinnon, Sex Equality (Foundation Press 2001) at 385-92
69. Morgan, op.cit. supra, n. 61, Chapter 5
70. Latham, op.cit. supra, n. 47, Chapters 1 and 7.
71. See also A. Belcher, 'The Not-Mother Puzzle' (2000) 9 Social and Legal Studies 539 at 541
72. A. Diduck, 'In Search of the Feminist Good Mother' (1998) 7 Social and Legal Studies at 129.
73. M. Brazier, 'Reproductive Rights: Feminism or Patriarchy?' in J. Harris and S. Holm (eds), The Future of Human Reproduction (Oxford University Press 2000) at 66.
74. See N. Pfeffer, 'Artificial Insemination, In-vitro Fertilization and the Stigma of Infertility' in M. Stanworth (ed.), op.cit. supra, n. 44 at 82.
75. Ibid.
76. See also M. Fox, 'A Woman's Right to Choose? A Feminist Critique' in J. Harris and S. Holm (eds) op.cit. supra, n. 63 at 77.
77. L. Koch, 'IVF - An irrational Choice?' (1990) 3 Issues in Reproductive and Genetic Engineering 235, quoted in Morgan op.cit. supra, n. 61 at 64.
78. For a detailed account of Italian feminism and abortion see Chapter 11 of Bono op.cit. supra, n. 49 at 212-59. There is also an interesting debate available at http://www.universitadelledonne.it.
79. Tobaldi, op.cit. supra, n. 48 at 2.
80. Cossutta report, op.cit. supra, n. 36 at 2.
81. Scalfari, op.cit. supra, n. 13.
82. The word concepito literally means the conceived. Article 1(1) 'Al fine di favorite la soluzione dei problemi riproduttivi derivanti dalla sterilità o dalla infertilità umana è consentito il ricorso ally procreazione medicalmente assistita, alle condizioni e secondo le modalità previste dalla presente legge, che assicura i diritti di tutti i soggetti coinvolti, compreso il concepito.'
83. The law uses the words infertility and sterility together throughout. The Ministry of Health guidelines indicate that for the purposes of that document the words are used synonymously although differentiates the meanings - infertility is where the couple cannot conceive after one year of unprotected intercourse, whereas sterility denotes more serious infertility where one or both partners are affected by a permanent physical impediment to procreation.
84. Article 1(2) 'Il ricorso alla procreazione medicalmente assistita è consentito qualora non vi siano altri metodi terapeutici efficaci per rimuovere le cause di sterilità o infertilità.'
85. The Bianchi report (op.cit. supra, n. 36) makes it clear that use of assisted reproduction: Is subordinate to attempts at therapeutic cure of infertility, at 4.
86. Donum Vitae, op.cit. supra, n. 39, at 15.
87. Indeed this is the view taken by more radical feminists see Latham, op.cit. supra n. 47 at 166.
88. Article 4(3) 'È vietato il ricorso a tecniche di procreazione assistita di tipo eterologo'.
89. Op.cit. supra, n. 7.
90. Article 5(1) 'possono accedere alle tecniche di procreazione medicalmente assistita coppie di maggiorenni di sesso diverso, coniugate o conviventi, in età potenzialmente fertile, entrambi viventi'.
91. Op.cit. supra, n. 72.
92. Thus, there will be no issue as to who is the legal mother - she is the birth mother under Article 269(3) c.c.
93. Stanworth, op.cit. supra, n. 44 at 23.
94. Bianchi report, op.cit. supra, n. 36 at 5.
95. M. Warnock, A Question of Life (Basil Blackwell 1985) at 21.
96. Sanza, Parliamentary debates 27.3.02, Sten. 124 s. 020, p. 24; http://www.camera.it/_dati/leg14/lavori/stenografici/sed124/s020.htm.
97. Stanworth, op.cit. supra, n. 44 at 20.
98. Donum Vitae, op.cit. supra, n. 39 at 9.
99. Ibid. at 10.
100. This concept was articulated by Paul VI, 'On the Regulation of Birth' (Humanae Vitae) 1968.
101. Donum Vitae, op.cit. supra, n. 39 at 11.
102. Ibid. at 13.
103. Ibid.
104. Ibid.
105. Ibid.
106. Warnock, op.cit. supra, n. 84 at 31.
107. Sanza, op.cit. supra, n. 85.
108. Italy's extra-marital birth rate is just over ten per cent compared with over 40 per cent in the UK and over 55 percent in Sweden and Estonia. Statistics for 2002, graph D4 Eurostat Population statistics 2004; http://epp.eurostat.cec.eu.int/cache/ITY_OFFPUBIKS-PB-04-001/EN/ KS-PB-04-001-EN.PDF;
109. In 'Famiglia, Matrimonio e "unioni di fatto"' Pontifico Consiglio per la Famiglia, 26.7.00.
110. Sanza, op.cit. supra, n. 85.
111. There is no specific mention of the deliberate exclusion of homosexual couples in the parliamentary reports or parliamentary debates and therefore this is difficult to comment upon as a separate issue.
112. 'Lo Stato restituiva ai singoli la piena libertà delle scelte procreative, affidate all'esercizio della responsibilità individuale.' Cossutta report, op.cit. supra, n. 36 at 2.
113. Stanworth, op.cit. supra, n. 44 at 15.
114. Bianchi report, op.cit. supra, n. 36 at 5.
115. It is interesting to note that Mussolini was at the forefront of protests by women parliamentarians following the judgement of the corte di cassazione in the so-called 'jeans-rape case': On this see R. Fenton, 'Separating Law from Facts: The Difficulties faced by the Italian Corte di Cassazione in an Appeal for Illogicality of Reasoning' (2000) 49 I.C.L.Q. 709.
116. '[P]erchè riteniamo che la figura parentale paterna sia fondamentale per la crescita psico-fisica ottimale del nascituro' C.406