Water and nitrogen processes along a typical water flowpath and streamwater exports from a forested catchment and changes after clear-cutting: A modelling study

Hydrology and Earth System Sciences

Volumn 9, Issue 6, 2005, Pages 657-674

  Laurén, Ari ^a   Finér, Leena ^a   Koivusalo, Harri ^b   Kokkonen, Teemu ^b   Karvonen, Tuomo ^b   Kellomäki, Seppo ^c   Mannerkoski, Hannu ^c   Ahtiainen, Marketta ^d  

^a FINNISH FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (Finland)

^b AALTO UNIVERSITY   (Finland)

^c UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN FINLAND   (Finland)

^d Finland's Environmental Administration   (Finland)

Author keywords

Ammonium; Boreal; Buffer zone; Catchment; DON; FEMMA; Harvesting; Nitrate; Watershed

Indexed keywords

CLEARCUTTING; FORESTED CATCHMENT; NITROGEN CYCLE; TWO-DIMENSIONAL MODELING; WATER CHEMISTRY;

EURASIA; EUROPE; FINLAND; NORTHERN EUROPE; SCANDINAVIA;

EID: 33144487840     PISSN: 10275606     EISSN: 16077938     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/hess-9-657-2005     Document Type: Article

References (119)

1. Ahonen, J., Rankinen, K., Holmberg, M., Syri, S. and Forsius, M., 1998. Application of the SMART2 model to a forested catchnient in Finland: comparison to the SMART model and effects of emission reduction scenarios. Bor. Environ. Res., 3, 221-233.
2. Ahtiainen, M. and Huttunen, P., 1999. Long-term effects of forestry managements on water quality and loading in brooks. Bor. Environ. Res., 4, 101-114.
3. Akselsson, C., Westling, O. and Örlander, G., 2004. Regional mapping of nitrogen leaching from clearcuts in southern Sweden. Forest Ecol. Manage. (in press)
4. Andersson, P., Berggren, D. and Nilsson, I., 2002. Indices for nitrogen status and nitrate leaching from Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) stands in Sweden. Forest Ecol. Manage., 157, 39-53.
5. Ambus, P., 1998. Nitrous oxide production by denitrification and nitrification in temperate forest, grassland and agricultural soils. Eur. J. Soil Sci., 49, 495-502.
6. Arheimer, B. and Wittgren, H.B., 2002. Modelling nitrogen removal in potential wetlands at the catchment scale. Ecol. Eng., 19, 63-80.
7. Aström, M., Aaltonen, E.-K. and Koivusaari, J., 2003. Impact of forest ditching on nutrient loadings of a small stream - a paired catchment study in Kronby, W. Finland. Sci. Total Envir., 297, 127-140.
8. Bååth, E., Frostegård, A., Pennanen, T. and Frize, H., 1995. Microbial community structure and pH response in relation to soil organic matter quality in wood-ash fertilizes, clear-cut or burned coniferous forest soils. Soil Biol. Biochem., 27, 229-240.
9. Bauhus, J., 1996. C and N mineralization in an acid forest soil along a gap-stand gradient. Soil Biol. Biochem., 28, 923-932.
10. Bäumler, R. and Zech, W., 1999. Effects of forest thinning on streamwater chemistry on two forest watersheds in the Bavarian Alps. Forest Ecol. Manage., 116, 119-128.
11. Bengtsson, G, Bengtson, P. and Månsson, F., 2003. Gross nitrogen mineralisation-, immobilisation-, and nitrification rates as a function of soil C/N ratio and microbial activity. Soil Biol. Biochem., 35, 143-154.
12. 15N) in decomposing Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) needle litter. Long-term decomposition in a Scots pine forest. VI. Can. J. Bot., 66, 1539-1546.
13. Berg, B. and Söderström, B., 1979. Fungal biomass and nitrogen in decomposing Scots pine needle litter. Soil Biol. Biochem., 11, 339-341.
14. Berg, B. and Staaf, H., 1981. Leaching, accumulation and release of nitrogen in decomposing forest litter. In: Terrestrial Nitrogen Cycles, F.E. Clarck and T. Rosswall, (Eds.). Ecol. Bull. (Stockholm), 33, 163-178.
15. Berg, B. and Theander, O., 1984. Dynamics of some nitrogen fractions in decomposing Scots pine needle litter. Pedobiologia, 27, 261-267.
16. Boegh, E., Thorsen, M., Butts, M.B., Hansen, S., Christiansen, J.S., Abrahamsen, P., Hasager, C.B., Jensen, N.O., van der Keur, P., Refsgaard, J.C., Schelde, K., Soegaard, H., Thomsen, A., 2004. Incorporating remote sensing data in physically based distributed agro-hydrological modeling. J. Hydrol. 287, 279-299.
17. Bredemeier, M., Blanck, K., Xu, Y.-J., Tietema, A., Boxman, A.W., Emmet, B., Moldan, F., Gundersen, P., Schleppi, P. and Wright, R.F., 1998. Input-output budgets at the NITREX sites. Forest Ecol. Manage., 101, 57-64.
18. Buttle, J.M., Creed, I.F. and Pomeroy, J.W., 2000. Advances in Canadian forest hydrology, 1995-1998. Hydrol. Process., 14, 1551-1578.
19. Cajander, A.K., 1949. Forest types and their significance. Acta For. Fenn., 56, 1-72.
20. Calder, I.R., 1990. Evaporation in the uplands. Wiley, Chichester, UK. 166pp.
21. Chertov, O.G. and Komarov, A.S., 1997. SOMM: A model of soil organic matter dynamics. Ecol. Model., 94, 177-189.
22. Chertov, O.G, Komarov, A.S., Nadporozhskaya, M., Bykhovets, S.S. and Zudin, S.L., 2001. ROMUL - a model of forest soil organic matter dynamics as a substantial tool for forest ecosystem modelling. Ecol. Model., 138, 289-308.
23. DaLuca, T.H., Zackrisson, O., Nilsson, M.-C. and Sellstedt, A., 2002. Quantifying nitrogen-fixation in feather moss carpets of boreal forests. Nature, 419, 917-920.
24. Devito, K.J., Westbrook, C.J. and Schiff, S.L., 1999. Nitrogen mineralization and nitrification in upland and peatland forest soils in two Canadian Shield catchments. Can. J. Forest Res., 29, 1793-1804.
25. Eckersten, H. and Beier, C., 1998. Comparison of N and C dynamics in two Norway spruce stands using a process oriented simulation model. Environ. Pollut., 102, 395-401.
26. Eckersten, H., Gärdenas, A. and Jansson, P.-E., 1995. Modelling seasonal nitrogen, carbon, water and heat dynamics of the Soiling spruce stand. Ecol. Model., 83, 119-129.
27. Emmet, B.A., Andersson, J.M. and Hornung, M., 1991. Nitrogen sinks following two intensities of harvesting in Sitka spruce forest (N. Wales) and the effect on the establishment of the next crop. Forest Ecol. Manage., 41, 81-93.
28. Fahey, T.J., Hill, M.O., Stevens, P.A., Hornung, M. and Rowland, P., 1991. Nutrient accumulation in vegetation following conventional and whole-tree harvest of Sitka spruce plantations in North Wales. Forestry, 64, 271-288.
29. FAO, 1988. FAO/UNESCO Soil map of the World, Revised Legend. World Resources report 60, Rome, Reprinted as Technical Paper 20. ISRIC, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 1989.
30. Finér, L., Ahtiainen, M., Mannerkoski, H., Möttönen, V., Piirainen, S., Seuna, P. and Starr, M., 1997. Effects of harvesting and scarification on water and nutrient fluxes. A description of catchment and methods, and results from the pre-treatment calibration period. Finnish Forest Research Institute, Research papers, 648. 38pp.
31. Finér, L., Mannerkoski, M., Piirainen, S. and Starr, M., 2003. Carbon and nitrogen pools in a old-growth, Norway spruce - mixed forest in eastern Finland and changes associated with clear-cutting. Forest Ecol. Manage., 174, 51-63.
32. Francos, A., Bidoglio, G, Galbiati, L., Bouraoui, F., Elorza, F.J., Rekokainen, S., Manni, K. and Granlund, K., 2001. Hydrological and water quality modelling in a medium-sized coastal basin. Phys. Chem. Earth, 26, 47-52.
33. 15N-labelled nitrogen inputs to coniferous and broadleaf forests. In: Carbon and nitrogen cycling in European forest ecosystems, E.-D. Schulze, (Ed.). Springer, Berlin, Germany. 144-170.
34. Glinski, J. and Stepniewski, W. 1985. Soil aeration and its role for plants. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL., USA. 229pp.
35. Gourley, C.J.P., Allan, D.L. and Russelle, M.P., 1994. Plant nutrient efficiency: a comparison of definitions and suggested improvement. Plant Soil, 158, 29-37.
36. Grip, H. 1982. Water chemistry and runoff in forest streams at Kloten. Uppsala Universitet Naturgeografiska Institutionen UNGI 58. 80pp.
37. Hannam, K.D. and Prescott, C.E., 2003. Soluble organic nitrogen in forests and adjacent clearcuts in British Columbia. Can. J. Forest Res., 33, 1709-1718.
38. Hasegava, M. and Takeda, H., 1996. Carbon and nutrient dynamics in decomposing pine needle litter in relation to fungal and faunal abundances. Pedobiologia, 40, 171-184.
39. Hendrickson, O.Q., 1990. Asymbiotic nitrogen fixation and soil metabolism in three Ontario forests. Soil Biol. Biochem., 22, 967-971.
40. Houston, A.P.C., Visser, S. and Lautenschlager, R.A., 1998. Microbial processes and fungal community structure in soils from clear-cut and unharvested areas of two mixedwood forests. Can. J. Bot., 76, 630-640.
41. Jacks, G. and Norrström, A.C., 2004. Hydrochemistry and hydrology of forest riparian wetlands. Forest Ecol. Manage., 196, 187-197.
42. Jansson, P.-E. and Karlberg, L., 2001. Coupled heat and mass transfer model for soil-plant-atmosphere systems. Royal Institute of Technology, Dept of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stockholm, Sweden. 321pp.
43. Jenkins, A., Ferrier, R.C. and Cosby, B.J., 1997. A dynamic model for assessing the impact of coupled sulphur and nitrogen deposition scenarios on surface water acidification. J. Hydrol., 197, 111-127.
44. Jenkins, A., Ferrier, R.C. and Helliwell, R.C., 2001. Modelling nitrogen dynamics at Lochnagar, N.E. Scotland. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 5, 519-527.
45. Kämäri, J., Rankinen, K., Finér, L., Piirainen, S. and Posch, M., 1998. Modelling response of soil and runoff chemistry to forest harvesting in a low deposition area (Kangasvaara, Eastern Finland). Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 2, 485-495.
46. Kareinen, T., Nissinen, A. and Ilvesniemi, H., 1998. Analysis of forest soil chemistry and hydrology with a dynamic model ACIDIC. Acta For. Fenn., 262, 42.
47. Karvonen, T., Koivusalo, H., Jauhiainen, M., Palko, J. and Weppling, K., 1999. A hydrological model for predicting runoff from different land use areas. J. Hydrol., 217, 253-265.
48. Kellomäki, S. and Väsänen, H., 1997. Modelling the dynamics of the forest ecosystem for climate change studies in the boreal conditions. Ecol. Model., 97, 121-140.
49. Kielland, K., 1994. Amino acid uptake by arctic plants. Ecology, 75, 2373-2383.
50. Kirschbaum, M.U.F. and Paul, K.I., 2002. Modelling C and N dynamics in forest soils with a modified version of the CENTURY model. Soil Biol. Biochem., 34, 341-354.
51. Kjønaas, O.J., Stuanes, A.O. and Huse, M., 1998. Effects of weekly nitrogen additions on N cycling in a coniferous forest catchment, Gårdsjön, Sweden. Forest Ecol. Manage., 101, 227-249.
52. Kjønaas, O.J. and Wright, R.F., 1998. Nitrogen leaching from N limited forest ecosystems: the MERLIN model applied to Gårdsjön, Sweden. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci, 2, 415-429.
53. Klemedtsson, L., Kasimir-Klemedtsson, Å., Moldan, F. and Weslien, P., 1997. Nitrous oxide emission from Swedish forest soils in relation to liming and simulated increased N-deposition. Biol. Fert. Soils, 25, 290-295.
54. Klinka, K., Green, R.N., Trowbridge, R.L. and Lowe, L.E., 1981. Taxonomic classification of humus forms in ecosystems of British Columbia. First Approximation. Ministry of Forests. Province of British Columbia, Canada. 54pp.
55. Koivusalo, H. and Kokkonen, T., 2002. Snow processes in a forest clearing and in a coniferous forest. J. Hydrol., 262, 145-162.
56. Koivusalo, H., Heikinheimo, M. and Karvonen, T., 2001. Test of a simple two-layer parametrisation to simulate the energy balance and temperature of a snowpack. Theor. Appl. Climatol., 70, 65-79.
57. Koivusalo, H., Kokkonen, T., Laurén, A., Ahtiainen, M., Karvonen, T., Mannerkoski, H. Penttinen, S., Seuna, P., Starr, M. and Finér, L., 2005. Parameterisation and application of a hillslope hydrological model to assess impacts of a forest clear-cutting on runoff generation. Accepted by Environ. Model. Software.
58. Koivusalo, H. and Kokkonen, T., 2003. Modelling runoff generation in a forested catchment in southern Finland. Hydrol. Process., 17, 313-328.
59. Kokkonen, T., Koivusalo, H. and Karvonen, T. 2001. A semidistributed approach to rainfall-runoff modelling - a case study in a snow affected catchment. Environ. Model Software, 16, 481-493.
60. Krám, P., Laudon, H., Bishop, K., Rapp, L. and Hruǩa, J., 2001. MAGIC modelling of long-term lake water and soil chemistry at Abborrträsket, Northern Sweden. Water Air Soil Pollut., 130, 1301-1306.
61. Krysanova, V., Müller-Wohlfeil, D.-I. and Becker, A., 1998. Development and test of a spatially distributed hydrological/water quality model for mesoscale watersheds. Ecol. Model., 106, 261-289.
62. Kubin, E., 1995. The effect of clear cutting, waste wood collecting and site preparation on the nutrient leaching to groundwater. In: Nutrient uptake and cycling in forest ecosystems. L.O. Nilsson and R.F. Hüttl, (Eds.). Kluwer, The Netherlands. 661-670.
63. Lamontagne, S., Schiff, S. and Elgood, J., 2000. Recovery of 15N-labelled nitrate applied to a small upland boreal forest catchment. Can. J. Forest Res., 30, 1165-1177.
64. Langusch, J.-J. and Matzner, E., 2002. N fluxes in two nitrogen saturated forested catchments in Germany: dynamics and modelling with INCA. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 6, 383-394.
65. Lepistö, A., 1995. Increased leaching of nitrate at two forested catchments in Finland over a period of 25 years. J. Hydrol., 171, 103-123.
66. Lepistö, A., Andersson, L., Arheimer, B. and Sundblad, K., 1995. Influence of catchment characteristics, forestry activities and deposition on nitrogen export from small forested catchments. Water Air Soil Poll., 84, 81-201.
67. Li, C., Frolking, S. and Frolking, T., 1992. A model of nitrous oxide evolution from soil driven by rainfall events: 1. Model structure and sensitivity. J. Geophys. Res., 97, 9759-9776.
68. Likens, G.E., Bormann, F.H., Johnson, N.M., Fisher, D.W. and Pierce, R.S., 1970. Effects of forest cutting and herbicide treatment on nutrient budgets in the Hubbard Brook watershed-ecosystem. Ecol. Monogr., 40, 23-47.
69. Lindo, Z and Visser, S., 2003. Microbial biomass, nitrogen and phosphorous mineralization, and mesofauna in boreal conifer and deciduous forest floors following partial and clear-cut harvesting. Can. J. Forest Res., 33, 1610-1620.
70. Lundell, Y. and Albrektson, A., 1997. Downslope effects of clearcutting in Sweden on diameter increment of Picea abies and Pinus sylvestris. Scand. J. For. Res., 12, 241-247.
71. Maljanen, M., Liikanen, A., Silvola, J. and Martikainen, P.J., 2003. Nitrous oxide emissions from boreal organic soil under different land-use. Soil Biol. Biochem., 35, 689-700.
72. Mälkönen, E., 1974. Annual primary production and nutrient cycle in some Scots pine stands. Commun. Inst. For. Fenn., 84.5, 1-87.
73. Martikainen, P.J., 1985. Nitrous oxide emission associated with autotrophic ammonium oxidation in acid coniferous soil. Appl. Environ. Microb., 50, 1519-1525.
74. Martikainen, P.J., Nykänen, H., Crill, P. and Silvola, J., 1993. Effect of a lowered water table on nitrous oxide from northern peatlands. Nature, 366, 51-53.
75. Matson, P.A., Gower, S.T., Volkman, C., Billow, C. and Grier, C.C., 1992. Soil nitrogen cycling and nitrous oxide flux in a Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir forest: effects of fertilization, irrigation and carbon addition. Biogeochemistry, 18, 101-117.
76. Mattsson, T., Finér, L., Kortelainen, P. and Sallantaus, T., 2003. Brook water quality and background leaching from unmanaged forested catchments in Finland. Water Air Soil Pollut., 147, 275-297.
77. Moldan, F. and Wright, R.F., 1998a. Changes in runoff chemistry after five years of N addition to a forested cathchent at Gårdsjön, Sweden. Forest Ecol. Manage., 101, 187-197.
78. Moldan, F. and Wright, R.F., 1998b. Episodic behaviour of nitrate in runoff during six years of nitrogen addition to the NITREX catchment at Gårdsjön, Sweden. Environ. Pollut., 102, 439-444.
79. Molina, J.A.E., Clapp, C.E., Shaffer, M.J., Chichester, F.W. and Larson, W.E., 1983. NCSOIL, a model of nitrogen and carbon transformations in soil: description, calibration and behaviour. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J., 47, 85-91.
80. Mou, P., Fahey, T.J. and Hughes, J.W., 1993. Effects of soil disturbance on vegetation recovery and nutrient accumulation following whole-tree harvest of a northern hardwood ecosystem. J. Appl. Ecol., 30, 661-675.
81. Näsholm, T., Ekblad, A., Nordin, A., Giesler, R., Högberg, M. and Högberg, P., 1998. Boreal forest plants take up organic nitrogen. Nature, 392, 914-916.
82. Nykvist, N., 1971. The effect of clear felling on the distribution of biomass and nutrients. Ecol. Bull., 14, 166-178.
83. Nykvist, N., 1997. Changes in species occurrence and phytomass after clearfelling, prescribed burning and slash removal in two Swedish spruce forests. Studia Forestalia Suecica, 201. 33pp.
84. Olsson, B.A., Staaf, H., Lundkvist, H., Bengtsson, J. and Rosén, K., 1996. Carbon and nitrogen in coniferous forest soils after clear-felling and harvests of different intensity. Forest Ecol. Manage., 82, 19-32.
85. Öquist, M.G., Nilsson, M., Sörensson, F., Kasimir-Klemedtsson, Å., Persson, T., Weslien, P. and Klemedtsson, L., 2004. Nitous oxide production in forest soil at low temperatures - processes and environmental controls. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol., 49, 371-378.
86. Paavolainen, L. and Smolander, A., 1998. Nitrification and denitrification in soil from a clear-cut Norway Spruce (Picea abies) stand. Soil Biol. Biochem., 30, 775-781.
87. Päivänen, J., 1982. The effect of cutting and fertilization on the hydrology of an old forest drainage area (in Finnish with an English summary), Folia Forestalia 516, Institutum Forestale Fenniae, Helsinki, Finland. 19 pp.
88. Palviainen, M., Finér, L., Kurka, A.-M., Mannerkoski, M., Piirainen, S. and Starr, M., 2004. Decomposition and nutrient release from logging residues after clear-cutting of mixed boreal forest. Plant Soil, 263, 53-67.
89. Palviainen, M., Finér, L., Piirainen, S. and Starr, M., 2005. Changes in above- and below-ground biomass and nutrient pools of ground vegetation after clear- cutting of a mixed boreal forest. Plant Soil, in press
90. 15N in forest soils and foliage to high nitrate loss following clear-cutting. Can. J. Forest Res., 32, 1126-1136.
91. Persson, T. and Wirén, A., 1995. Nitrogen mineralization and potential nitrification at different depths in acid forest soils. Plant Soil, 168-169, 55-65.
92. Persson, T., Rudebeck, A., Jussy, J.H., Colin-Belgrand, M., Priemé, A., Dambrine, E., Karlsson, P.S. and Sjöberg, R.M., 2000. Nitrogen turnover - mineralization, nitrification and denitrification in European forest soils. In: Carbon and nitrogen cycling in European forest ecosystems, E.-D. Schulze, (Ed.). Springer, Berlin, Germany. 297-331.
93. Piirainen, S., Finér, L. and Starr, M., 1998. Canopy and soil retention of nitrogen deposition in a mixed boreal forest in Eastern Finland. Water Air Soil Pollut., 105, 165-174.
94. Piirainen, S., Finér, L., Mannerkoski, M. and Starr, M., 2002a. Effects of forest clear-cutting on carbon and nitrogen fluxes through podzolic soil horizons. Plant Soil, 239, 301-311.
95. Piirainen, S., Finér, L. and Starr, M., 2002b. Deposition and leaching of sulphate and base cations in a mixed boreal forest in Eastern Finland. Water Air Soil Pollut., 131, 185-204.
96. Potila, H. and Sarjala, T., 2004. Seasonal fluctuation in microbial biomass and activity along a natural nitrogen gradient in drained peatland. Soil Biol. Biochem., 36, 1047-1055.
97. Postek, K.M., Driscoll, C., T., Aber, J.D. and Santore, R.C., 1995. Application of pnet-CN/CHESS to a spruce stand in Solling, Germany. Ecol. Model., 83, 163-172.
98. Qualls, R.G., 2000. Comparison of the behaviour of soluble organic and inorganic nutrients in forest soils. Forest Ecol. Manage., 138, 29-50.
99. 2O and NO production in the soil profile of drained and forested peatland, as studied with acetylene, nitrapyrin and dimethyl ether. Biol. Fertil. Soil, 27, 205-210.
100. 2O and NO and net nitrogen mineralization in a boreal forested peatland treated with different nitrogen compounds. Can. J. Forest Res., 28, 132-140.
101. Rekolainen, S., Posch, M., Kämäri, J. and Ekholm, P., 1991. Evaluation of accuracy and precision of annual phosphorous load estimates from two agricultural basins in Finland. J. Hydrol. 128, 237-255.
102. Rosén, K. and Lunmark-Thelin, A., 1987. Increased nitrogen leaching under piles of slash - a consequence of modern forest harvesting techniques. Scand. J. Forest Res., 2, 21-29.
103. Shreve, R.L., 1969. Stream lengths and basin areas in topographically random channel networks. J. Geol., 77, 397-414.
104. Skaggs, R.W., 1980. A water management model for artificially drained soils, North Carolina Agricultural Research Service, Raleigh, USA. 54pp.
105. Smolander, A., Kitunen, V., Priha, O. and Mälkönen, E., 1995. Nitrogen transformations in limed and nitrogen fertilized soil in Norway spruce stands. Plant Soil, 17, 107-115.
106. Smolander, A., Priha, O., Paavolainen, L., Steer, J. and Mälkönen, E., 1998. Nitrogen and carbon transformations before and after clear-cutting in repeatedly N-fertilized and limed forest soil. Soil Biol. Biochem., 30, 477-490.
107. Staaf, H. and Berg, B., 1982. Accumulation and release of plant nutrients in decomposing Scots pine needle litter. Long-term decomposition in a Scots pine forest II. Can. J. Bot., 60, 1561-1568.
108. Stednick, J.D., 1996. Monitoring the effects of timber harvest on annual water yield. J. Hydrol., 176, 79-95.
109. Tamm, C.O., 1991. Nitrogen in terrestrial ecosystems: questions of productivity, vegational changes and ecosystem stability. Ecol. Stud, 8, 115.
110. Teepe, R., Brumme, R. and Beese, F., 2000. Nitrous oxide emissions from frozen soils under agricultural, fallow and forest land. Soil Biol. Biochem., 32, 1807-1810.
111. Troendle, C.A., 1983. The potential for water yield augmentation from forest management in the Rocky Mountain region. Water Resour. Bull., 19, 359-373.
112. Titus, B.D. and Malcom, D.C., 1992. Nutrient leaching from litter layer after clearfelling Sitka spruce stands on peaty gley soils. Forestry, 65, 389-416.
113. Vestgarden, L.S., Selle, L.T. and Stuanes, A.O., 2003. In situ nitrogen mineralisation in a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stand: effects of increased nitrogen input. Forest E-col. Manage., 176, 205-216.
114. Wade, A.J., Durand, P., Beaujouan, V., Wessel, W.W., Raat, K.J., Whitehead, P.G, Butterfield, D., Rankinen, K., and Lepistö, A., 2002. A nitrogen model for European catchments: INCA, new model structure and equations. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 6, 559-582.
115. Whitaker, A., Alila, Y., Beckers, J. and Toews, D., 2002. Evaluating peak flow sensitivity to clear-cutting in different elevation bands of a snowmelt-dominated mountainous catchment. Water Resour. Res., 38, 1172 doi:10. 1029/2001 WR000514.
116. Whitehead, P.G., Wilson, E.J. and Butterfield, D., 1998. A semidistributed integrated Nitrogen model for multiple source assessment in Catchments (INCA): Part I - model structure and process equations. Sci. Total Envir., 210/211, 547-558.
117. Wright, R.F., Emmet, B.A. and Jenkins, A., 1998a. Acid deposition, land-use change and global change: MAGIC 7 model applied to Aber, UK (NITREX project) and Risdalsheia, Norway (RAIN and CLIMEX projects). Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 2, 385-397.
118. Wright, R.F., Beier, C. and Cosby, B.J., 1998b. Effects of nitrogen deposition and climate change on nitrogen runoff at Norwegian boreal forest catchments: the MERLIN model applied to Risdalsheia (RAIN and CLIEMX projects). Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 2, 399-414.
119. Wu, L. and McGechan, M.B., 1998. A review of carbon and nitrogen processes in four soil nitrogen dynamics models. J. Agr. Eng. Res., 69, 279-305.