Energy requirements during pregnancy and lactation

Public Health Nutrition

Volumn 8, Issue 7 A, 2005, Pages 1010-1027

  Butte, Nancy F ^a   King, Janet C ^b  

^a BAYLOR COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b CHILDREN S HOSPITAL OAKLAND RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (United States)

Author keywords

Basal metabolic rate; Energy intake; Exclusive breastfeeding; Lactation; Total energy expenditure

Indexed keywords

FAT; POTASSIUM; PROTEIN;

BASAL METABOLIC RATE; BODY COMPOSITION; BODY FAT; BODY MASS; BREAST FEEDING EDUCATION; CALORIC DENSITY; CALORIC INTAKE; DOUBLY LABELED WATER TECHNIQUE; ENERGY; ENERGY EXPENDITURE; FACTORIAL DESIGN; FAT INTAKE; FEMALE; HEALTH CARE; HUMAN; LACTATION; MATHEMATICAL COMPUTING; MILK PRODUCTION; NORMAL HUMAN; NUTRITIONAL ASSESSMENT; NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENT; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PREGNANCY OUTCOME; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN INTAKE; REVIEW; TOTAL BODY POTASSIUM; WEIGHT GAIN;

ADULT; ENERGY INTAKE; ENERGY METABOLISM; FEMALE; HUMANS; LACTATION; MATERNAL NUTRITION PHYSIOLOGY; NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS; PREGNANCY; PRENATAL NUTRITION PHYSIOLOGY;

EID: 33144479477     PISSN: 13689800     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1079/PHN2005793     Document Type: Review

References (105)

1. WHO. Energy and Protein Requirements. Report of a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation. Technical Report Series No. 724. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1985.
2. WHO. Maternal Anthropometry and Pregnancy Outcomes - AWHO Collaborative Study. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 1995; 73: S1-69.
3. WHO. Physical Status: The Use and Interpretation of Anthropometry. Geneva: WHO, 1995.
4. Kelly A, Kevany J, de Onis M, Shah PM. A WHO collaborative study of maternal anthropometry and pregnancy outcomes. International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics: the Official Organ of the International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics 1996; 53: 219-33.
5. Martorell R, Delgado HL, Valverde V, Klein RE. Maternal stature, fertility and infant mortality. Human Biology; an International Record of Research 1981; 53: 303-12.
6. Merchant KM, Villar J, Kestler E. Maternal height and newborn size relative to risk of intrapartum caesarean delivery and perinatal distress. BJOG: an International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 2001; 108: 689-96.
7. Pickett KE, Abrams B, Selvin S. Maternal height, pregnancy weight gain, and birthweight. American Journal of Human Biology: the Official Journal of the Human Biology Council 2000; 12: 682-7.
8. Institute of Medicine and Food and Nutrition Board. Nutrition During Pregnancy. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1990.
9. Kleinman J. Maternal Weight Gain During Pregnancy: Determinants and Consequences. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics, Public Health Service, US Department of Health and Human Services, 1990.
10. Abrams B, Altman SL, Pickett KE. Pregnancy weight gain: still controversial. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2000; 71: S1233-41.
11. Hytten FE, Chamberlain G. Clinical Physiology in Obstetrics. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1991.
12. Blaxter K. Energy Metabolism in Animals and Man. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
13. Hytten FE. Nutrition. In: Hytten FE, Chamberlain G, eds. Clinical Physiology in Obstetrics. Part 2. Nutrition and Metabolism. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1980; 163-92.
14. MacGillivray I, Buchanan TJ. Total exchangeable sodium and potassium in non-pregnant women and in normal and pre-eclamptic pregnancy. Lancet 1958; 2: 1090-3.
15. 40K and weight gain in teenage pregnant girls. Journal of Nutrition 1973; 103: 772-85.
16. Emerson K Jr, Poindexter EL, Kothari M. Changes in total body composition during normal and diabetic pregnancy. Relation to oxygen consumption. Obstetrics and Gynecology 1975; 45: 505-11.
17. Pipe NGJ, Smith T, Halliday D, Edmonds CJ, Williams C, Coltart TM. Changes in fat, fat-free mass and body water in normal human pregnancy. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 1979; 86: 929-40.
18. Forsum E, Sadurskis A, Wager J. Resting metabolic rate and body composition of healthy Swedish women during pregnancy. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1988; 47: 942-7.
19. Butte NF, Hopkinson JM, Ellis K, Wong WW, Treuth MS, Smith EO. Composition of gestational weight gain impacts maternal fat retention and infant birth weight. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2003; 189: 1423-32.
20. Spaaij CJK. The efficiency of energy metabolism during pregnancy and lactation in well-nourished Dutch women. The Netherlands: University of Wageningen, 1993.
21. Durnin JVGA, McKillop FM, Grant S, Fitzgerald G. Energy requirements of pregnancy in Scotland. Lancet 1987; 2: 897-900.
22. van Raaij JMA, Vermaat-Miedema SH, Schonk CM, Peek MEM, Hautvast JGAJ. Energy requirements of pregnancy in The Netherlands. Lancet 1987; 11: 953-5.
23. Thongprasert K, Tanphaichitre V, Valyasevi A, Kittigool J, Durnin JV. Energy requirements of pregnancy in rural Thailand. Lancet 1987; 2: 1010-2.
24. Tuazon MA, van Raaij JM, Hautvast JG, Barba CV. Energy requirements of pregnancy in the Philippines. Lancet 1987; 2: 1129-31.
25. Barba CVC. Progress Report on Study on Maternal Energy Requirements During Pregnancy and Lactation of Rural Philippine Women. Los Banos: Institute of Human Nutrition and Food, University of the Philippines, 1994.
26. Lawrence M, Coward WA, Lawrence F, Cole TJ, Whitehead RG. Fat gain during pregnancy in rural African women: the effect of season and dietary status. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1987; 45: 1442-50.
27. Hopkinson JM, Butte NF, Ellis KJ, Wong WW, Puyau MR, Smith EO. Body fat estimation in late pregnancy and early postpartum: comparison of two-, three-, and four-component models. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1997; 65: 432-8.
28. van Raaij JMA, Peek MEM, Vermaat-Miedema SH, Schonk CM, Hautvast JGAJ. New equations for estimating body fat mass in pregnancy from body density or total body water. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1988; 48: 24-9.
29. Siri WE. Body composition from fluid spaces and density: an analysis of methods. In: Broszek J, Henschel A, eds. Techniques for Measuring Body Composition. Washington, DC: National Academy of Science-National Research Council, 1961.
30. Fuller NJ, Jebb SA, Laskey MA, Coward WA, Elia M. Four-component model for the assessment of body composition in humans: comparison with alternative methods, and evaluation of the density and hydration of fat-free mass. Clinical Science 1992; 82: 687-93.
31. de Groot LCPGM, Boekholt HA, Spaaij CJK, van Raaij JMA, Drijvers JJMM, van der Heijden LJM, Hautvast JGAJ. Energy balances of Dutch women before and during pregnancy: limited scope for metabolic adaptations in pregnancy. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1994; 59: 827-32.
32. Goldberg GR, Prentice AM, Coward WA, Davies HL, Murgatroyd PR, Wensing C, Black AE, Harding M, Sawyer M. Longitudinal assessment of energy expenditure in pregnancy by the doubly labelled water method. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1993; 57: 494-505.
33. Koop-Hoolihan LE, Van Loan MD, Wong WW, King JC. Fat mass deposition during pregnancy using a four-component model. Journal of Applied Physiology 1999; 87: 196-202.
34. Butte NF, Wong WW, Treuth MS, Ellis K, Smith EO. Energy requirements during pregnancy based on total energy expenditure and energy deposition. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2004; 79: 1078-87.
35. Kopp-Hoolihan LE, Van Loan MD, Wong WW, King JC. Longitudinal assessment of energy balance in well-nourished, pregnant women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1999; 69: 697-704.
36. Poppitt SD, Prentice AM, Jequier E, Schutz Y, Whitehead RG. Evidence of energy sparing in Gambian women during pregnancy: a longitudinal study using whole-body calorimetry. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1993; 57: 353-64.
37. Prentice AM, Spaaij CJK, Goldberg GR, Poppitt SD, van Raaij JMA, Totton M, Swann D, Black AE. Energy requirements of pregnant and lactating women. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1996; 50: S82-111.
38. Prentice AM, Goldberg GR, Davies HL, Murgatroyd PR, Scott W. Energy-sparing adaptations in human pregnancy assessed by whole-body calorimetry. British Journal of Nutrition 1989; 62: 5-22.
39. Butte NF, Hopkinson JM, Mehta N, Moon JK, Smith EO. Adjustments in energy expenditure and substrate utilization during late pregnancy and lactation. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1999; 69: 299-307.
40. Heini A, Schutz Y, Jéquier E. Twenty-four-hour energy expenditure in pregnant and nonpregnant Gambian women, measured in a whole-body indirect calorimeter. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1992; 55: 1078-85.
41. Goldberg GR, Prentice AM, Coward WA, Davies HL, Murgatroyd PR, Sawyer MB, Ashford J, Black AE. Longitudinal assessment of the components of energy balance in well-nourished lactating women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1991; 54: 788-98.
42. Forsum E, Kabir N, Sadurskis A, Westerterp K. Total energy expenditure of healthy Swedish women during pregnancy and lactation. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1992; 56: 334-42.
43. Heini A, Schutz Y, Diaz E, Prentice AM, Whitehead RG, Jequier E. Free-living energy expenditure measured by two independent techniques in pregnant and nonpregnant Gambian women. American Journal of Physiology 1991; 261: E9-17.
44. Singh J, Prentice AM, Diaz E, Coward WA, Ashford J, Sawyer M, Whitehead RG. Energy expenditure of Gambian women during peak agricultural activity measured by the doubly-labelled water method. British Journal of Nutrition 1989; 62: 315-29.
45. Panter-Brick C. Seasonality of energy expenditure during pregnancy and lactation for rural Napali women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1993; 57: 620-8.
46. Dufour DL, Reina JC, Spurr G. Energy intake and expenditure of free-living, pregnant Colombian women in an urban setting. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1999; 70: 269-76.
47. Durnin JVGA. Energy metabolism in pregnancy. In: Cowett R, ed. Principles of Perinatal-Neonatal Metabolism. New York: Springer, 1992, 228-36.
48. Spaaij CJK, van Raaij JMA, van der Heijden LJM, Schouten FJM, Drijvers JJMM, de Groot LCPGM, Boekholt HA, Hautvast JGAJ. No substantial reduction of the thermic effect of a meal during pregnancy in well-nourished Dutch women. British Journal of Nutrition 1994; 71: 335-44.
49. Nagy NE, King JC. Postprandial energy expenditure and respiratory quotient during early and late pregnancy. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1984; 40: 1258-63.
50. Illingworth PJ, Jung RT, Howie PW, Isles TE. Reduction in postprandial energy expenditure during pregnancy. British Medical Journal 1987; 294: 1573-6.
51. Schutz Y, Golay A, Jéquier E. 24 h energy expenditure (24-EE) in pregnant women with a standardized activity level. Experientia 1988; 44: A31.
52. Contaldo F, Scalfi L, Coltorti A, Di Palo MR, Martinelli P, Guerritore T. Reduced regulatory thermogenesis in pregnant and ovariectomized women. International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research. Internationale Zeitschrift fur Vitamin- und Ernahrungsforschung. Journal International de Vitaminologie et de Nutrition 1987; 57: 299-304.
53. Blackburn MW, Galloway DH. Energy expenditure of pregnant adolescents. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 1974; 65: 24-30.
54. Blackburn MW, Calloway DH. Basal metabolic rate and work energy expenditure of mature, pregnant women. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 1976; 69: 24-8.
55. Seitchik J. Total body water and total body density of pregnant women. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 1967; 29: 155-65.
56. Edward MJ, Metcalfe J, Dunham MJ, Maul MS. Accelerated respiratory response to moderate exercise in late pregnancy. Respiration Physiology 1981; 45: 229-41.
57. Blackburn MW, Galloway DH. Heart rate and energy expenditure of pregnant and lactating women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1985; 42: 1161-9.
58. Durnin JVGA. Energy requirements of pregnancy. Diabetes 1991; 40: 152-6.
59. van Raaij JMA, Schonk CM, Vermaat-Miedema SH, Peek MEM, Hautvast JGAJ. Energy cost of walking at a fixed pace and self-selected pace before, during and after pregnancy. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1990; 51: 158-61.
60. Schoeller D. Limitations in the assessment of dietary energy intake by self-report. Metabolism Clinical and Experimental 1995; 44: 18-22.
61. Lindsay CA, Huston L, Amini SB, Catalano PM. Longitudinal changes in the relationship between body mass index and percent body fat in pregnancy. Obstetrics and gynecology 1997; 89: 377-82.
62. Institute of Medicine. Nutrition Issues in Developing Countries. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1992.
63. March of Dimes. Nutrition Today Matters Tomorrow - A Report From the March of Dimes Task Force on Nutrition and Optimal Human Development, 2002.
64. Kumbi S, Isehak A. Obstetric outcome of teenage pregnancy in Northwestern Ethiopia. East African Medical Journal 1999; 76: 138-40.
65. Gortzak-Uzan L, Hallak M, Press F, Katz M, Shoham-Vardi I. Teenage pregnancy: risk factors for adverse perinatal outcome. Journal of Maternal-fetal Medicine 2001; 10: 393-7.
66. Larsson J, Svanberg L. Teenage deliveries in a Swedish population in the 1970's. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 1983; 62: 467-72.
67. Bwibo N. Birthweights of infants of teenage mothers in Nairobi. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica Supplement 1985; 319: 89-94.
68. Lao T, Ho L. The obstetric implications of teenage pregnancy. Human reproduction 1997; 12: 2303-5.
69. Jolly M, Sebire N, Harris J, Robinson S, Regan L. Obstetric risks of pregnancy in women less than 18 years old. Obstetrics and Gynecology 2000; 96: 962-6.
70. Prentice A, Paul A, Black A, Cole T, Whitehead R. Cross-cultural differences in lactational performance. In: Hamosh M, Goldman AS, eds. Human Lactation 2: Maternal and Environmental Factors. New York: Plenum Press, 1986; 13-44.
71. WHO Expert Consultation. Expert Consultation on the Optimal Duration of Exclusive Breastfeeding. Conclusions and Recommendations. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO, 2001.
72. Brown K, Dewey KG, Allen L. Complementary Feeding of Young Children in Developing Countries: a Review of Current Scientific Knowledge. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1998.
73. Garza C, Butte NF. Energy concentration of human milk estimated from 24-hour pools and various abbreviated sampling schemes. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition 1986; 5: 943-8.
74. Prentice AM, Prentice A. Energy costs of lactation. Annual Review of Nutrition 1988; 8: 63-79.
75. Thompson AM. The energy cost of human lactation. British Journal of Nutrition 1970; 24: 565-74.
76. Frigerio C, Schutz Y, Prentice A, Whitehead R, Jequier E. Is human lactation a particularly efficient process? European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1991; 45: 459-62.
77. Butte NF, Wong WW, Hopkinson JM. Energy requirements of lactating women derived from doubly labelled water and milk energy output. Journal of Nutrition 2001; 131: 53-8.
78. Butte NF, Barbosa L, Villalpando S, Wong WW, Smith EO. Total energy expenditure and physical activity level of lactating Mesoamerindians. Journal of Nutrition 1997; 127: 299-305.
79. Brent NB, Redd B, Dworetz A, D'Amico F, Greenberg JJ. Breast-feeding in a low-income population. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 1995; 149: 798-803.
80. Lovelady CA, Meredith CN, McCrory MA, Nommsen LA, Joseph LJ, Dewey KG. Energy expenditure in lactating women: a comparison of doubly labelled water and heart-rate-monitoring methods. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1993; 57: 512-8.
81. Sadurskis A, Kabir N, Wager J, Forsum E. Energy metabolism, body composition, and milk production in healthy Swedish women during lactation. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1988; 48: 44-9.
82. Spaaij CJK, van Raaij JMA, de Groot LCPGM, van der Heijden LJM, Boekholt HA, Hautvast JGAJ. Effect of lactation on resting metabolic rate and on diet- and work-induced thermogenesis. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1994; 59: 42-7.
83. Schutz Y, Lechtig A, Bradfield RB. Energy expenditures and food intakes of lactating women in Guatemala. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1980; 33: 892-902.
84. Guillermo-Tuazon MA, Barba CVC, van Raaij JMA, Hautvast JGAJ. Energy intake, energy expenditure, and body composition of poor rural Philippine women throughout the first 6 mo of lactation. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1992; 56: 874-80.
85. Illingworth PJ, Jung RT, Howie PW, Leslie P, Isles TE. Diminution in energy expenditure during lactation. British Medical Journal 1986; 292: 437-41.
86. Motil KJ, Montandon CM, Garza C. Basal and postprandial metabolic rates in lactating and non-lactating women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1990; 52: 610-5.
87. Frigerio C, Schutz Y, Whitehead RG, Jéquier E. Postprandial thermogenesis in lactating and non-lactating women from the Gambia. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1992; 46: 7-13.
88. van Raaij JMA, Schonk CM, Vermaat-Miedema SH, Pek MEM, Hautvast JGAJ. Energy cost of physical activity throughout pregnancy and the first year postpartum in Dutch women with sedentary lifestyles. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1990; 52: 234-9.
89. Butte NF, Hopkinson JM. Body composition changes during lactation are highly variable among women. Journal of Nutrition 1998; 128: S381-5.
90. Roberts SB, Paul AA, Cole TJ, Whitehead RG. Seasonal changes in activity, birth weight and lactational performance in rural Gambian women. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 1982; 76: 668-78.
91. Allen LH, Bakstrand JR, Chavez A, Pelto GH. People Cannot Live by Tortillas Alone: The Result of the Mexico Nutrition CRSP. Washington: Final report to the US Agency for International Development, 1992.
92. Black AE, Wiles SJ, Paul AA. The nutrient intakes of pregnant and lactating mothers of good socio-economic status in Cambridge, UK: some implications for recommended daily allowances of minor nutrients. British Journal of Nutrition 1986; 56: 59-72.
93. English RM, Hitchcock NE. Nutrient intakes during pregnancy, lactation and after the cessation of lactation in a group of Australian women. British Journal of Nutrition 1968; 22: 615-24.
94. Schofield C, Wheeler E, Stewart J. The diets of pregnant and post-pregnant women in different social groups in London and Edinburgh: energy, protein, fat and fibre. British Journal of Nutrition 1987; 58: 369-81.
95. Whichelow MJ. Success and failure of breast-feeding in relation to energy intake. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 1975; 35: 62A-3A.
96. Lederman SA, Paxton A, Heymsfield SB, Wang J, Thornton J, Pierson RN Jr. Body fat and water changes during pregnancy in women with different body weight and weight gain. Obstetrics and Gynecology 1997; 90: 483-8.
97. Sohlström A, Forsum E. Changes in total body fat during the human reproductive cycle as assessed by magnetic resonance imaging, body water dilution, and skinfold thickness: a comparison of methods. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1997; 66: 1315-22.
98. Durnin JVGA, McKillop FM, Grant S, Fitzgerald G. Energy requirements of pregnancy in Scotland. Lancet 1987; 2: 897-900.
99. de Groot LCPGM, Boekholt HA, Spaaij CJK, van Raaij JMA, Drijvers JJMM, van der Heijden LJM, Hautvast JGAJ. Energy balances of healthy Dutch women before and during pregnancy: limited scope for metabolic adaptations in pregnancy. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1994; 59: 827-32.
100. Lawrence M, Whitehead RG. Physical activity and total energy expenditure of child-bearing Gambian village women. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1988; 42: 145-60.
101. Wood CS, Isaacs PC, Jensen M, Hilton HG. Exclusively breast-fed infants: growth and caloric intake. Pediatric nursing 1988; 14: 117-24.
102. Butte NF, Garza C, Smith EO, Nichols BL. Human milk intake and growth of exclusively breast-fed infants. Journal of Pediatrics 1984; 104: 187-95.
103. Butte NF, Wong WW, Ferlic L, Smith EO. Energy expenditure and deposition of breast-fed and formula-fed infants during early infancy. Pediatric Research 1990; 28: 631-40.
104. Dewey KG, Heinig MJ, Nommsen LA, Lonnerdal B. Adequacy of energy intake among breast-fed infants in the DARLING study: relationships to growth velocity, morbidity, and activity levels. Journal of Pediatrics 1991; 119: 538-47.
105. Motil KJ, Sheng H-P, Montandon CM, Wong WW. Human milk protein does not limit growth of breast-fed infants. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition 1997; 24: 10-7.