Deromancing leadership: what are the behaviours of highly effective middle managers?

International Journal of Management Practice

Volumn 1, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 3-20

  Van der Weide, Joost G ^a   Wilderom, Celeste P M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TWENTE   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

effectiveness; leadership and romance of leadership; middle management; observable behaviours

Indexed keywords

EID: 32644456145     PISSN: 14779064     EISSN: 17418143     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1504/ijmp.2004.004867     Document Type: Article

References (125)

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43. Rainey, H.G. and Watson, S.A. (1996) ‘Transformational leadership and middle management: towards a role for mere mortals’, International Journal of Public Administration, Vol. 19, No. 6, pp.763–800.
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45. Spreitzer, G.M. and Quinn, R.E. (1996) ‘Empowering middle managers to be transformational leaders’, Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, Vol. 32, No. 3, pp.237–261.
46. Transformational and transactional leadership is the most frequently used leadership concept of the last decades among academics, trainers and management consultants.
47. Spreitzer, G.M. and Quinn, R.E. (1996) ‘Empowering middle managers to be transformational leaders’, Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, Vol. 32, No. 3, pp.237–261.
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49. In the BBC TWO series, Secrets of Leadership, Andrew Roberts examined the leadership styles of these four men who dramatically altered the course of history.
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56. Bass, B.M. (1985) Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations, Free Press, New York.
57. Avolio, B.J., Bass, B.M. and Jung, D.I. (1999) ‘Re-examining the components of transformational and transactional leadership using the multifactor leadership questionnaire’, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 72, pp.441–462.
58. Den Hartog, D.N., Van Muijen, J.J. and Koopman, P.L. (1997) ‘Transactional versus transformational leadership: an analysis of the MLQ’, Journal of Occupational and Organisational Psychology, Vol. 70, pp.19–34.
59. Avolio, B.J., Bass, B.M. and Jung, D.I. (1999) ‘Re-examining the components of transformational and transactional leadership using the multifactor leadership questionnaire’, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 72, pp.441–462.
60. See also, Pearce, C.L., Sims, H.P. Jr., Cox, J.F., Ball, G., Schnell, E., Smith, K.A., Trevino, L. (2003) ‘Transactors, transformers and beyond. A multi-method development of a theoretical typology of leadership’, Journal of Management Development, Vol. 22, No. 4, pp.273–307.
61. See for example: Hater, J.J. and Bass, B.M. (1988) ‘Superiors’ evaluations and subordinates’ perceptions of transformational and transactional leadership’, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 73, No. 4, pp.695–702.
62. Avolio, B.J., Waldman, D.A. and Einstein, W.O. (1988) ‘Transformational leadership in a management game simulation: impacting the bottom line’, Group and Organizational Studies, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp.59–80.
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65. Lowe, K.B., Kroeck, K.G. and Sivasubramaniam, N. (1996) ‘Effectiveness correlates of transformational and transactional leadership: a meta-analytic review of the MLQ literature’, Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp.385–425.
66. Geyer, A.L.J. and Steyrer, J.M. (1998) ‘Transformational leadership and objective performance in banks’, Applied Psychology: An International Review, Vol. 47, No. 3, pp.397–420.
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68. Yukl, G. (1999) ‘An evaluation of conceptual weaknesses in transformational and charismatic leadership theories’, Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp.285–305.
69. Several empirical studies have shown strong correlations between the three I’s of transformational leadership.
70. Den Hartog, D.N., Van Muijen, J.J. and Koopman, P.L. (1997) ‘Transactional versus transformational leadership: an analysis of the MLQ’, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 70, pp.19–34.
71. Den Hartog, D.N., Van Muijen, J.J. and Koopman, P.L. (1994) ‘Transactioneel versus transformationeel leiderschap: een analyse van de MLQ in de Nederlandse situatie’, Gedrag en Organisatie, Vol. 7, pp.155–166.
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73. Carless, S.A. (1998) ‘Assessing the discriminant validity of transformational leader behaviour as measured by the MLQ’, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 71, pp.353–358.
74. Wilderom, C.P.M. and Van den Berg, P.T. (2001) ‘Firm culture and leadership as firm performance predictors: a resource-based perspective’, to be resubmitted to Organization Science. And even Bass concluded that most of the variance can be accounted for by charisma (inspirational motivation) (Bass, B.M. (1990) Bass & Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership, Free Press, New York). Respondents to questionnaires, often mistakenly, easily mix up the three I’s of transformational leadership. Inspirational motivation surveys often contain items like: ‘sets high standards’ or ‘provides continuous encouragement.’ Those items can easily be confused with items belonging to intellectual stimulation such as ‘encourages me to express my ideas and opinions’ or ‘questions the traditional ways of doing things.’ The MLQ is used to measure transformational and transactional leadership. MLQ stands for Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. One might argue that these items are different from each other. However, many survey respondents perceive such items as more or less the same.
75. Pearce, C.L., Sims, H.P. Jr., Cox, J.F., Ball, G., Schnell, E., Smith, K.A., Trevino, L. (2003) ‘Transactors, transformers and beyond. A multi-method development of a theoretical typology of leadership’, Journal of Management Development, Vol. 22, No. 4, pp.273–307.
76. In our study a middle manager was labeled as highly effective if he or she received a positive score on three effectiveness criteria: 1) the formal HRM-performance appraisal of the manager must be good; 2) the senior manager and the management-development director must judge a manager as highly effective (i.e., their opinions about a manager must be very positive); and 3) after the first two criteria were met all direct reports of the selected middle manager were asked to rate the effectiveness of their manager. They had to fill out a one-page questionnaire which contained only items related to the managers’ effectiveness. Only those middle managers were selected insofar their average subordinates score was higher than a 3.5 on a scale from 1 to 5.
77. See also Davis, T.R.V. and Luthans, F. (1979) ‘Leadership re-examined: a behavioral approach’, The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp.237–248.
78. See page 182 of Meindl, J.R. (1990) ‘On leadership: an alternative to the conventional wisdom’, Research in Organizational Behavior, Vol. 12, pp.159–203.
79. Uleman, J.S. (1991) ‘Leadership ratings: toward focusing more on specific behaviors’, Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp.175–187.
80. Meindl, J.R. (1990) ‘On leadership: an alternative to the conventional wisdom’, Research in Organizational Behavior, Vol. 12, pp.159–203.
81. Davis, T.R.V. and Luthans, F. (1979) ‘Leadership re-examined: a behavioral approach’, The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp.237–248.
82. Meindl, J.R. (1990) ‘On leadership: an alternative to the conventional wisdom’, Research in Organizational Behavior, Vol. 12, pp.159–203.
83. Conger, J.A. and Kanungo, R.N. (1987) ‘Toward a behavioral theory of charismatic leadership in organizational settings’, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 12, No. 4, pp.637–647.
84. Spreitzer, G.M. and Quinn, R.E. (1996) ‘Empowering middle managers to be transformational leaders’, Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, Vol. 32, No. 3, pp.237–261.
85. See page 80 of Thierry, H., Den Hartog, D.N., Koopman, P.L. and Wilderom, C.P.M. (2001) ‘Dutch managers on transformational leadership and culture’, Polish Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 1, No.1, pp.63–82.
86. Davis, T.R.V. and Luthans, F. (1979) ‘Leadership re-examined: a behavioral approach’, The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp.237–248.
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93. Upon request we can send an overview of the theoretical foundation of this new observation scheme.
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102. One should distinguish authentic from pseudo-transformational leaders (see Bass, B.M. (1998) ‘The ethics of transformational leadership’, in J.B. Ciulla (Ed.) Ethics, the Heart of Leadership, Praeger, Westport, C.T.
103. Bass, B.M. and Steidlmeier, P. (1999) ‘Ethics, character, and authentic transformational leadership behavior’, Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp.181–217). Pseudo-transformational leaders are personalised leaders who act at the expense of others; i.e. they are very manipulative and do not hesitate to execute brute power. Well-known examples are Saddam Hussein and Adolf Hitler. They have the ability to manipulate others for their own benefits. They even ‘kill’ others who disagree with them, without any hesitation. Pseudo-transformational leaders may be observed in the media as very charming leaders, especially towards little children, but be aware, in private they are not. They are primarily concerned about themselves.
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