Are we there yet? An assessment of fit between stereotypes of minority managers and the successful-manager prototype

Journal of Applied Social Psychology

Volumn 35, Issue 10, 2005, Pages 2029-2056

  Chung Herrera, Beth G ^a   Lankau, Melenie J ^b  

^a SAN DIEGO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 32244435139     PISSN: 00219029     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.2005.tb02208.x     Document Type: Article

References (90)

1. Adams, E. G. (1978). A multivariate study of subordinate perceptions of and attitudes toward minority and majority managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63, 277-288.
2. Alderfer, C. P., & Smith, K. K. (1982). Studying intergroup relations embedded in organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 27, 35-65.
3. Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
4. Bartol, K. M., Martin, D. C., & Kromkowski, J. A. (2003). Leadership and the glass ceiling: Gender and ethnic group influences on leader behaviors at middle and executive managerial levels. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 9, 8-19.
5. Bass, B. M. (1990). Bass & Stogdill's handbook of leadership: Theory, research, and managerial implications (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Free Press.
6. Beckett, N. E., & Park, B. (1995). Use of category versus individuating information: Making base rates salient. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 21-31.
7. Bell, E. E., & Nkomo, S. (1994). Barriers to workplace advance experienced by African Americans. Boston, MA: U.S. Department of Labor, Glass Ceiling Commission.
8. Bentz, V. J. (1990). Contextual issues in predicting high-level leadership performance: Contextual richness as a criterion consideration in personality research with executives. In K. E. Clark & M. B. Clark (Eds.), Measures of leadership (pp. 131-143). West Orange, NJ: Leadership Library of America.
9. Blalock, H. M. (1967). Toward a theory of minority-group relations. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
10. Boyce, L. A., & Herd, A. M. (2003). The relationship between gender role stereotypes and requisite military leadership characteristics. Sex Roles, 49, 365-378.
11. Bray, D. W., & Howard, A. (1983). The AT&T longitudinal studies of managers. In K. W. Schaie (Ed.), Longitudinal studies of adult psychological development (pp. 112-146). New York, NY: Guilford.
12. Brenner, O. C., Tomkiewicz, J., & Schein, V. E. (1989). The relationship between sex-role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics revised. Academy of Management Journal, 32, 662-669.
13. Brewer, M. B., & Brown, R. J. (1998). Intergroup relations. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 554-594). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
14. Cabezas, A., Tam, T. M., Lowe, B. M., Wong, A., & Turner, K. (1989). Empirical study of barriers to upward mobility of Asian Americans in the San Francisco Bay area. In G. Nomura, R. Endo, R. Leong, & S. Sumida (Eds.), Frontiers of Asian American studies (pp. 85-97). Pullman, WA: Washington State University Press.
15. Chatman, J. A., Polzer, J. T., Barsade, S. G., & Neale, M. A. (1998). Being different yet feeling similar: The influence of demographic composition and organizational culture on work processes and outcomes. Administrative Science Quarterly, 43, 749-780.
16. Chen, S.-H., & Kleiner, B. H. (1998). Developments concerning race discrimination in the workplace. Equal Opportunities International, 17, 40-45.
17. Cirksena, K. (1989). Women's liberation from spirals of silence: The need for feminist studies in mass communication research. In R. R. Rush & D. Aliens (Eds.), Communications at the crossroads: The gender gap connection (pp. 46-58). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
18. Cox, T. (1993). Cultural diversity in organizations: Theory, research, and practice. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.
19. Darley, J. M., & Fazio, R. H. (1980). Expectancy confirmation processes arising in the social interaction sequence. American Psychologist, 35, 867-881.
20. Deschamps, J. C. (1982). Social identity and relations of power between groups. In H. Tajfel (Ed.), Social identity and intergroup relations (pp. 85-98). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
21. Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5-18.
22. Devine, P. G., & Elliot, A. J. (1995). Are racial stereotypes really fading? The Princeton trilogy revisited. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 1139-1150.
23. Dipboye, R. L. (1985). Some neglected variables in research on discrimination in appraisals. Academy of Management Review, 10, 116-127.
24. Dodge, K. A., Gilroy, F. D., & Fenzel, L. M. (1995). Requisite management characteristics revisited: Two decades later. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 10, 253-264.
25. Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (1991). Gender and the emergence of leaders: A meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 685-710.
26. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (1998). Employer Information Report. Washington, DC: Author.
27. Eyring, A., & Stead, B. A. (1998). Shattering the glass ceiling: Some successful corporate practices. Journal of Business Ethics, 17, 245-252.
28. Falkenberg, L. (1990). Improving the accuracy of stereotypes within the workplace. Journal of Management, 16, 107-118.
29. Fernandez, J. P. (1981). Racism and sexism in corporate life. Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath.
30. Fernandez, J. P. (1991). Managing a diverse work force: Regaining the competitive edge. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
31. Fernandez, J. P. (1999). Race, gender, and rhetoric: The true state of race and gender relations in corporate America. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
32. Fiske, S. T. (1998). Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 357-411). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
33. Fiske, S. T. (2002). What we know now about bias and intergroup conflict, the problem of the century. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 123-128.
34. Fiske, S. T., & Neuberg, S. L. (1990). A continuum of impression formation, from category-based to individuating processes: Influences of information and motivation on attention and interpretation. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 23, 1-74.
35. Gerstner, C. R., & Day, D. V. (1994). Cross-cultural comparison of leadership prototypes. Leadership Quarterly, 5, 121-134.
36. Gilbert, J., Carr-Ruffino, N., Ivancevich, J. M., & Lownes-Jackson, M. (2003). An empirical examination of inter-ethnic stereotypes: Comparing Asian American and African American employees. Public Personnel Management, 32, 251-266.
37. Greenhaus, J. H., & Parasuraman, S. (1993). Job performance attributions and career advancement prospects: An examination of gender and race effects. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 55, 273-297.
38. Hall, R. J., & Lord, R. G. (1995). Multi-level information processing explanations of followers' leadership perceptions. Leadership Quarterly, 6, 265-287.
39. Hamilton, D. L., & Trolier, T. K. (1986). Stereotypes and stereotyping: An overview of the cognitive approach. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (pp. 127-163). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
40. Hays, W. L. (1963). Statistics for psychologists. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
41. Heilman, M. E. (1983). Sex bias in work settings: The lack of fit model. In B. Staw & L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 5, pp. 269-298). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
42. Heilman, M. E. (1995). Sex stereotypes and their effects in the workplace: What we know and what we don't know. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 10, 3-26.
43. Heilman, M. E., Block, C. J., Martell, R. F., & Simon, M. C. (1989). Has anything changed? Current characterizations of men, women, and managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74, 935-942.
44. Heilman, M. E., & Martell, R. F. (1986). Exposure to successful women: Antidote to sex discrimination in applicant screening decisions? Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 37, 376-390.
45. Hilton, J. L., & Fein, S. (1989). The role of typical diagnosticity in stereotypebased judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 201-211.
46. Hogan, R., Curphy, G. J., & Hogan, J. (1994). What we know about leadership. American Psychologist, 49, 493-504.
47. Hogg, M. A., & Terry, D. J. (2000). Social identity and self-categorization processes in organizational contexts. Academy of Management Review, 25, 121-140.
48. Hurley, A. E., & Giannantonio, C. M. (1999). Career attainment for women and minorities: The interactive effects of age, gender, and race. Women in Management Review, 14, 4-13.
49. Ibarra, H. (1993). Personal networks of women and minorities in management: A conceptual framework. Academy of Management Review, 18, 56-87.
50. Igbaria, M., & Wormley, W. M. (1995). Race differences in job performance and career success. Communications of the ACM, 38, 82-92.
51. Irons, E. D., & Moore, G. W. (1985). Black managers: The case of the banking industry. New York, NY: Praeger.
52. Jackson, J. C. (2001). Women middle managers' perception of the glass ceiling. Women in Management Review, 16, 30-41.
53. Kraiger, K., & Ford, J. K. (1985). A meta-analysis of ratee race effects in performance ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 56-65.
54. Larwood, L., Gutek, B., & Gattiker, U. E. (1984). Perspectives on institutional discrimination and resistance to change. Group and Organization Studies, 9, 333-352.
55. Larwood, L., Szwajkowski, E., & Rose, S. (1988a). Sex and race discrimination resulting from manager-client relationships: Applying the rational bias theory of managerial discrimination. Sex Roles, 18, 9-29.
56. Larwood, L., Szwajkowski, E., & Rose, S. (1988b). When discrimination makes "sense": The rational bias theory of discrimination. In B. A. Gutek, A. H. Stromberg, & L. Larwood (Eds.), Women and work (pp. 265-288). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
57. Linnehan, F., & Konrad, A. M. (1999). Diluting diversity: Implications for intergroup inequality in organizations. Journal of Management Inquiry, 8, 399-414.
58. Linville, P. W., Salovey, P., & Fischer, G. W. (1986). Stereotyping and perceived distribution of social characteristics: An application to in-group/out-group perception. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (pp. 165-208). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
59. Lord, R. G. (1985). An information processing approach to social perceptions, leadership, and behavioral measurement in organizations. In L. L. Cummings & B. M. Staw (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 7, pp. 87-128). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
60. Lord, R. G., Foti, R. J., & De Vader, C. L. (1984). A test of leadership categorization theory: Internal structure, information processing, and leadership perceptions. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 34, 343-378.
61. Martins, L. L., Milliken, F. J., Wiesenfeld, B. M., & Salgado, S. R. (2003). Racioethnic diversity and group members' experiences. Group and Organization Management, 28, 75-106.
62. Massengill, D., & DiMarco, N. (1979). Sex-role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics: A current replication. Sex Roles, 5, 561-576.
63. Morrison, A. M., & Von Glinow, M. A. (1990). Women and minorities in management. American Psychologist, 45, 200-208.
64. Morrison, A. M., White, R. P., & Van Velsor, E. (1988). Breaking the glass ceiling: Can women reach the top of America's largest corporations? Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
65. Niemann, Y. F., Jennings, L., Rozelle, R. M., Baxter, J. C., & Sullivan, E. (1994). Use of free response and cluster analysis to determine stereotypes of eight groups. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 379-390.
66. Noe, R. A. (1988). Women and mentoring: A review and research agenda. Academy of Management Review, 13, 65-78.
67. Nye, J. L., & Forsythe, D. R. (1991). The effects of prototype-based biases on leadership appraisals. Small Group Research, 22, 360-379.
68. Oyserman, D., & Sakamoto, I. (1997). Being Asian American: Identity, cultural constructs, and stereotype perception. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 33, 435-453.
69. Powell, G. N. (1988). Women and men in management. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
70. Powell, G. N., & Butterfield, D. A. (1979). The "good manager": Masculine or androgynous? Academy of Management Journal, 22, 395-403.
71. Powell, G. N., & Butterfield, D. A. (1989). The "good manager": Did androgyny fare better in the 1980s? Group and Organization Studies, 14, 216-233.
72. Ragins, B. R. (1997a). Antecedents of diversified mentoring relationships. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 51, 90-109.
73. Ragins, B. R. (1997b). Diversified mentoring relationships in organizations: A power perspective. Academy of Management Review, 22, 482-522.
74. Ragins, B. R., & Sundstrom, E. (1989). Gender and power in organizations: A longitudinal perspective. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 51-88.
75. Ragins, B. R., Townsend, B., & Mattis, M. (1998). Gender gap in the executive suite: CEOs and female executives report on breaking the glass ceiling. Academy of Management Executive, 12, 28-42.
76. Ramirez, A. (1991). Racism toward Hispanics: The culturally monolithic society. In P. A. Katz & D. A. Taylor (Eds.), Eliminating racism: Profiles in controversy (pp. 137-157). New York, NY: Plenum.
77. Rosch, E. (1978). Principles of categorization. In E. Rosch & B. B. Lloyd (Eds.), Cognition and categorization (pp. 27-48). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
78. Rosch, E., Mervis, C., Gray, W., Johnson, D., & Boyes-Braem, P. (1976). Basic objects in natural categories. Cognitive Psychology, 8, 382-439.
79. Rush, M. C., Phillips, J. S., & Lord, R. G. (1981). The effects of a temporal delay in rating on leader behavior descriptions: A laboratory investigation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 66, 442-450.
80. Rush, M. C., & Russell, J. E. (1988). Leader prototypes and prototype consensus in leader behavior descriptions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 24, 88-104.
81. Schein, V. E. (1973). The relationship between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics. Journal of Applied Psychology, 57, 95-100.
82. Schein, V. E. (1975). Relations between sex-role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics among female managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 340-344.
83. Shrout, P. E., & Fleiss, J. L. (1979). Intraclass correlations: Uses in assessing rater reliability. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 420-428.
84. Stumpf, S. A., & London, M. (1981). Capturing rater policies in evaluating candidates for promotion. Academy of Management Journal, 24, 752-766.
85. Swann, W. B., Langlois, J. H., & Gilbert, L. A. (1999). Sexism and stereotypes in modern society. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
86. Triandis, H. (1994). Culture and social behavior. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
87. U.S. Department of Labor. (1991). Employment and earnings. Washington, DC: Bureau of Labor Statistics.
88. U.S. Department of Labor. (1995, November). A solid investment: Making full use of the nation's human capital. Washington, DC: Glass Ceiling Commission.
89. Wittenbrink, B., & Henly, J. R. (1996). Creating social reality: Informational social influence and the content of stereotypical beliefs. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 598-610.
90. Wu, D. (1997). Asian Pacific Americans in the workplace. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira.