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See supporting data at Science Online.
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Stimulus, local enhancement, and social facilitation are terms that refer to specific instances of individual learning that are triggered by the activity of a conspecific. Stimulus and local enhancement occur because the model's behavior attracts an onlooker's attention toward some object or some activity in a location. Social enhancement refers to an increase in attention and motivation when engaged in a task that occurs in the presence of another individual. Without experimental controls, it is unclear whether the onlooker who later approaches and interacts with the object in ques tion copied the model's action, or instead learned to produce the same behavior by individual trial-and-error learning, Observers may also learn about the causal structure of actions by observing a model. For example, an individual who watches a model use a rake to reach a food item may learn that the rake may be used to attain out-of-reach food, but not that there is a specific technique for using rakes. This mode of social learning, where subjects learn the causal relationship between an object (e.g., a tool) and a desired outcome (e.g., food), has been described as the "emulation of affordances" or emulation learning (4). However, Whiten and Ham (5) have argued that individuals in these studies may be copying the goals of the model (not necessarily their specific techniques). As a result, these authors prefer to call this mechanism "goal emulation."
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Both Horatio and Oberon each served as a "student" and as an "expert." Experts were trained in isolation (with the partition dividing the two chambers) until they completed at least 65% of the trials correctly during two consecutive sessions.
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We thank all the members of the Primate Cognition Lab for their assistance. Supported by National Institute of Mental Health grant R01 MH40462 (H.S.T.).
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