Regulating death at coalmines: Changing mode of governance in China

Journal of Contemporary China

Volumn 15, Issue 46, 2006, Pages 1-30

  Wang, Shaoguang ^a  

^a CHINESE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG   (Hong Kong)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COAL MINING; HEALTH AND SAFETY; INDUSTRIAL POLICY; MORTALITY;

ASIA; CHINA; EURASIA; FAR EAST;

EID: 31144459365     PISSN: 10670564     EISSN: 14699400     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10670560500331658     Document Type: Article

References (107)

1. Christopher Hood, Colin Scott, Oliver James, George Jones and Tony Travers, Regulation Inside Government: Waste-Watchers, Quality Police, and Sleaze-Busters (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 3.
2. Also see Giandomenico Majone, 'From the positive to the regulatory state. Causes and consequences of changes in the mode of governance', Journal of Public Policy 17(2), (1997), pp. 139-167.
3. R. G. Noll, ed., Regulatory Policy and the Social Sciences (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985);
4. Robert Baldwin, Colin Scott and Christopher Hood, eds, Socio-Legal Reader on Regulation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 3.
5. For almost a century, the regulatory state was just one of the distinctive features of American Exceptionalism: What the United States regulated, other countries often nationalized. See David Vogel, 'The hare and the tortoise revisited', British Journal of Political Science 33, (October 2003), pp. 557-580.
6. But since the mid-1980s governance through regulation has ceased to be a peculiarity of the American administrative state but has become a central feature of governance reforms in the OECD countries [see Giandomenico Majone, 'The rise of the regulatory state in Europe', West European Politics 17, (1994), pp. 77-101;
7. Steven K. Vogel, Freer Markets, More Rules: Regulatory Refroms in Advanced Industrial Countries (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996);
8. F. McGowan and H. Wallace, 'Towards a European regulatory state', Journal of European Public Policy 3(4), (1996), pp. 560-576;
9. Martin Loughlin and Colin Scott, 'The regulatory state', in Patrick Dunleavy, Ian Holliday, Andrew Gamble and Gillian Peele, eds, Developments in British Politics 5 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997);
10. John Braithwaite, 'The new regulatory state and the transformation of criminology', British Journal of Criminology 40, (2000), pp. 222-238;
11. Michael Moran, 'From command state to regulatory state?', Public Policy and Administration 15(4), (2000), pp. 1-13;
12. Michael Moran, 'Review article: Understanding the regulatory state', British Journal of Political Science 32, (2002), pp. 391-413;
13. Markus M. Muller, The New Regulatory State in Germany (Birmingham: Birmingham University Press 2002)],
14. Latin America [Luigi Manzetti, ed., Regulatory Policy in Latin America: Post-Privatization Realities (Miami: North-South Center Press, 2000);
15. Edmund Amann and Werner Baer, 'From the developmental to the regulatory state: The transformation of the government's impact on the Brazilian economy', Department of Economics, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2003],
16. East Asia [Kanishka Jayasuriya, 'Globalization and the changing architecture of the state: The politics of the regulatory state and the politics of negative co-ordination', Journal of European Public Policy 8(1), (2001), pp. 101-123],
17. and developing countries in general [Paul Cook, Kirkpatrick Colin, Martin Minogue and David Parker, eds, Leading Issues in Competition, Regulation and Development, CRC Series on Regulation (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2004)].
18. A study of 12 different sectors in 19 Latin American countries, for instance, finds that the overall number of regulatory authorities grew from 15 to 134 between 1988 and 2002. In the four years from 1993 to 1996 alone, 60 new authorities were established. All sectors and countries were affected by the process [Jacint Jordana and David Levi-Faur, eds, The Politics of Regulation (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2003)]. What has happened in China is apparently a part of this global wave of regulatory revolution.
19. Liang Jiakun's speech at the News Conference of the State Council Information Office, 17 January 2005, available at http://www.chinasafety.gov.cn/zuixinyaowen/2005-01/17/content_67935.htm.
20. See http://www.msha.gov/stats/daily/d2004bar.pdf.
21. Wang Qingyi, 'Meikuang anquan: Guoji jingyan yu duice jianyi', Zhongguo meitan 29(4), (April 2003), pp. 44-53.
22. Philip Andrews-Speed, 'Reform of China's energy sector: Slow progress to an uncertain goal', in Sarah Cook, Shujie Yao and Juzhong Zhuang, eds, Chinese Economy under Transition (London: Macmillan, 2000), pp. 111-130.
23. Philip Andrews-Speed et al., 'Regulating energy in federal transition economies: The case of China', in G. MacKerron and P. Pearson, eds, The International Energy Experience: Markets, Regulation and the Environment (London: Imperial College Press), pp. 91-102.
24. Editorial Committee, Zhongguo meitanzhi zonghejuan (Beijing: Meitan gongye chubanshe, 1999), p. 222.
25. Also see Elspeth Thomson, The Chinese Coal Industry: An Economic History (London: Routledge/Curzon, 2003).
26. Originally, TVEs were conceived as enterprises to be run by townships or villages. They have now been expanded to include a wide range of cooperative and individual enterprises run by rural residents.
27. Zhongguo meitan gongye nianjian 2002 (Beijing: Meitan gongye chubanshe, 2002), p. 288.
28. Zhongguo zhiye anquan shengchan nianjian 1991 (Beijing: Minzhu chubanshe, 1992), p. 434.
29. Tim Wright, 'Competition and complementarity: Township and village mines and the state sector in China's coal industry', China Information 14(1), (2000), pp. 113-130.
30. State Administration of Coal Mine Safety Supervision, '2003 nian guoyou meikuang anquan pinggu qingkuang huizongbiao', and '2003 nian xiangzheng meikuang anquan chengdu pinggu qingkuang huizongbiao', available at http://www.chinasafety.gov.cn/file/2004-01/sg1.xls.
31. Zhongguo meitan gongye nianjian, 1994, p. 303.
32. Tim Wright's recent article deals with only China's coal safety record during the reform era. See Tim Wright, 'The political economy of coal mine disasters in China: "your rice bowl or your life"', China Quaterly 179, (September 2004).
33. Zhongguo meitanzhi zonghejuan, p. 222.
34. Also see Tim Wright, Patrick Hannan and Denis Twitchett, Coal Mining in China's Economy & Society 1895-1937 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
35. Zhongguo meitanzhi zonghejuan, p. 404.
36. Dangdai zhongguo de meitan gongye (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1989), pp. 231-232.
37. 'Kuangshan anquan guanli huhuan zhidu chuangxin', available at http://news.xinhuanet.com/misc/2002-07/09/content_474599.htm.
38. For the information about Japan's coalmine safety, see Kiyoshi Higuchi, 'Coal mining technology of Japan - historical improvement and international contribution hereafter', available at www.e-convention.org/ imhc/papers/Higuchi_e.pdf.
39. The actual number of fatal accidents in TVE mines could be much higher as many accidents might not be properly reflected in Figures 9 and 10 due to widespread underreporting. TVE mine owners, often with the aid and knowledge of local officials, have a strong incentive to cover up deaths at their enterprises.
40. State Administration of Coal Mine Safety Supervision, Meikuang lingyu yanjiu baogao, 2004-2010, 22 December 2003, available at http://www.chinasafety.gov.cn/file/2004-01/kjgh-3.doc.
41. Zhongugo meitanzhi zonghejuan, p. 405.
42. The rate has changed since the introduction of the charge.
43. For instance, in 1992, the government introduced a 'co-ordinated and planned increase' in the price of coal by RMB 1.00 per ton and the increased revenue was allocated to gas and dust prevention measures. As a result, 86 state mines where serious gas-related disasters had taken place were able to improve their ventilation, monitoring and other safety facilities. Consequently, gas-related accidents in state-owned key mines were reduced. Li Wenjun, 'Quanguo meikuang anquan shengchan zhuangkuang fenxi jiqi fazhan duice', Zhongguo meitan 27(6), (June 2002), pp. 53-55.
44. Ibid.;
45. Yang Daming, 'Woguo meikuang anquan shengchan xianzhuang yu duice', Keji daobao no. 7, (2001), pp. 57-60;
46. Wang Lin, Li Yuming and Zhu Jianfang, 'Meikuang anquan shengchan xianzhuang fenxi jiqi duice', Hebei meitan no. 6, (2002), pp. 4-6;
47. Liu Qingfeng and Zhao Wenwei, 'Meikuang anquan shengchan de xianzhuang chengyin jiqi duice', Meikuang anquan no. 2, (2002), pp. 53-55.
48. A survey of 446 managers of TVE mines in Jiangxi Province in 2001 revealed that two-thirds of them had only junior high education. See Wang Yingjie, 'Moqing dishu duizheng shizhi', available at http://www.modernsafe.com/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=164.
49. Among the 8,512 managers of TVE mines who took qualification exams in 2002 and 2003, only 49% of them passed. See People's Daily, (18 September 2003), p. 5.
50. Wei Maohe, 'Xiangzheng meikuang anquan shengchan zhengzhi duice', Laodong baohu zhazhi no. 8, (2001), pp. 35-36;
51. Wu Qiang and Yang Daming, 'Lun Woguo xiangzheng meikuang de anquan shengchan guanli', Keji daobao no. 10, (2002), pp. 47-50.
52. Yang Xinhua and Qin Xuegui, 'Meikuang anquan shengchan wenti fenxi jiqi duice qiantan', Shanxi keji no. 2, (2002), pp. 43-44;
53. Li Xianjie and Wang Fengmin, 'Meikuang anquan shigu yuanyin fenxi jiqi fangfan duice', Neimenggu meitan jingji no. 5, (2001), pp. 2-4.
54. Project Study Group, 'Meitan zhigong laodong baochou xianzhuang ji duice', Zhongguo meitan 29(9), (September 2003), pp. 6-29.
55. CCTV, 'CCTV forum: Kuangnan de jingshi', available at http://www.ccgov.org.cn/bgov/gzgdbtt/g2003110054.htm.
56. He Aimin, 'Dangqian meikuang anquan cunzai de zhuyao wenti ji duice', 25 March 2004, available at http://www.jxmkaqjc.gov.cn/2004-3/ 2004325101532.htm.
57. Ibid.
58. Wei Maohe, 'Xiangzheng meikuang anquan shengchan zhengzhi duice'.
59. Dangdai zhongguo de meitan gongye, pp. 231-235;
60. Zhongguo meitanzhi zonghejuan, pp. 399-401;
61. Zhonguo anquan shengchan nianjian, 1979-1999 (Beijing: Minzhu chubanshe, 2000), pp. 118-121.
62. State Council, 'Guanyu xiangzheng meikuang shixing hangye guanli de tongzhi', (13 December 1986).
63. In 1984, the Ministry of Agriculture issued 'Xiangzheng meikuang anquan shengchan ruogan zhanxing guiding'.
64. Ministry of Labor, 'Xiangzheng meikuang kuangjing anquan shengchan tiaojian hege zheng shishi banfa', (9 June 1990); 'Guanyu xiangzheng meikuang kuangzhang anquan zige kaohe fazheng wenti de fuhan'.
65. Zhang Rongji, 'Goujian xinzhi bixu zhengshi lishi zunzhong xianshi', available at http://www.anquan.com.cn/article/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID = 3420.
66. State Council, 'Guanyu guoyou zhongdian meikuang guanli tizhi youguan wenti de tongzhi'.
67. Zhang Rongji, 'Goujian xinzhi bixu zhengshi lishi zunzhong xianshi'; 'Yichang youguan meitan changliang de diaocha zhengzai gedameitan qiye jingji zhankai', available at http://www.chinacoal.org.cn/coal/jryw/ 040323x2.htm.
68. Zhongguo anquan shengchan nianjian, 1979-1999, p. 120.
69. Zhongguo meitanzhi zonghejuan, pp. 401-402. Also see the Ministry of Labor, 'Zhonghua renmin gongheguo kuangshan anquanfa shishi tiaoli', (30 October 1996), which provided that the maximum amount of fine should not be higher than RMB 50,000.
70. Zhao Congguo, 'Qianxi woguo meikuang anquan guanlu fangmian de buzhu', Meikuang keji no. 2, (2002), pp. 41-42.
71. Zhongguo meitan gongye nianjian did not disclose accident data before 1996. Since then, the yearbook has provided detailed information on fatal accidents.
72. Both People's Daily and Xinhua News Agency maintain special sections on their Web pages that list all coalmine accidents.
73. For instance, the Ministry of Coal Industry circulated 15 such decrees from 1980 to the mid-1990s. See Zhongguo meitanzhi zonghejuan, pp. 397-399;
74. and Zhongguo anquan shengchan nianjian, 1979-1999, pp. 119-120.
75. For a complete list of rulings on the coalmining industry and coalmine safety stipulated by central government, see http://www.3jjj.com/ bwfg.asp, and for local rulings, see http://www.3jjj.com/dffg.asp.
76. The list is by no means exhaustive.
77. SAWS/SACMS, http://www.chinasafety.gov.cn/misc/2005-02/28/ content_77529.htm.
78. Apart from its headquarters in Beijing, the SACMS has 19 provincial bureaus and 49 regional inspecting offices with a total staff of 2,800. Provincial bureaus are normally staffed by 40-60 and regional offices by about 20-25. See Central Commission of Personnel Control, State Commission of Economic and Trade, State Bureau of Coal Industry, 'Meikuang anquan jiancha guanli tizhi gaige shishi fang'an', (21 December 1999).
79. '2003 nian meikuang anquan jiancha zhifa qude shixiao', available at http://www.chinasafety.gov.cn/anquanjianguanjiancha/2004-02/05/ content_2158.htm.
80. Their behavior also results in wasting valuable mining resources and damaging the environment. Besides, a glut of coal in the middle through to the late 1990s caused severe losses for large state mining companies. See Quanguo meitan hangye guanjing yachan wenjian ziliao xuanbian (Beijing: Meitan gongye chubanshe, 1999).
81. See Vice Premier Zou Jiahua's speech at the National Conference on TVE Coal Mines, 29 March 1994: Zhongguo meitan gongye nianjian 1995, pp. 113-117.
82. State Council, 'Guanyu guanbi feifa he buju buheli meikuang youguan wenti de tongzhi', (November 1998).
83. Office of the State Council, 'Guanyu guanbi guoyou meikuang kuangban xiaojing he xiangzheng meikuang tingchan zhengdun de jinji tongzhi', (June 2001);
84. 'Guanyu jinyibu zuohao guanbi zhengdun xiaomeikuang he meikuang anquan gongzuo de tongzhi', (September 2001).
85. Some have suggested bringing the total number of small mines down to 5,000 by the end of the Tenth Five-Year Plan period. See Wu Qiang and Yang Daming, 'Lun Woguo xiangzheng meikuang de anquan shengchan guanli'.
86. However, the resultant leap in coal prices has led to the owners of hundreds of illegal and small coal operations reopening their mines to cash in on the bonanza, despite running the risk of prosecution.
87. Ministry of Coal Industry, 'Guanyu dui geji anquan shengchan diyi zerenren de jixiang guiding', (1987).
88. Ministry of Coal Industry, 'Guanyu kuangjing qudui banzhuzhang anquan zhize de zhiling', (1988).
89. Ministry of Coal Industry, 'Meikuang zhigong anquan jishu peixun guiding', (1994).
90. Examples include 'Meikuang anquan zhuangbei jiben yaoqiu', (1983);
91. 'Meikuang anquan guicheng', (1986);
92. 'Xiangzheng meikuang anquan guicheng', (1987);
93. 'Fangzhi mei yu wasi tuchu xize', (1995).
94. Ministry of Coal Industry, 'Anquan jianduyuan guanli zhanxing guiding', (1994).
95. Ministry of Coal Industry, 'Guanyu zai guanche zhixing meitan zongchengbao fang'an zhong qieshi gaohao anquan gongzuo de tongzhi', (1985);
96. 'Guanyu meikuang qiye anquan shengchan jiangchengzhidu de jueding', (1986);
97. 'Guanyumeikuang qiye anquan shengchan jiangcheng zhidu de buchong tongzhi', (1986);
98. 'Guanyu tongpei meikuang anquan shengchan jiangcheng de zhanxing guiding', (1996).
99. Ministry of Coal Industry, 'Meitan xingzheng chufa banfa', (1997).
100. State Council, 'Meikuang anquan jiancha tiaoli', (2000).
101. Xinhua News Agency, 'China takes steps to halt coal mine disasters', Beijing, (23 February 2005), available at http://news.xinhuanet.com/ english/2005-02/23/content_2625059.htm.
102. Tang Tsou, Ershi shiji zhongguo zhengzhi: Cong hongguan lishi yu weiguan xingdong jiaodu kan (HongKong: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 69-72.
103. Ulrich Beck, Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity, trans. M. Ritter (London: Sage, 1992);
104. Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Cambridge: Polity, 1990).
105. Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time (Boston: Beacon Press, 1944), p. 130.
106. Michael Power, The Audit Society: Rituals of Verification (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 138.
107. Polanyi, The Great Transformation, pp. 130-134.