The nature of anti-soviet armed resistance, 1942-44: The North Caucasus, the Kalmyk autonomous republic, and crimea

Kritika

Volumn 6, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 285-318

  Statiev, Alexander ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 30844431700     PISSN: 1531023X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/kri.2005.0029     Document Type: Article

References (110)

1. A. M. Nekrich, Nakazannye narody (New York: Khronika, 1978)
2. and Joachim Hoffmann, Deutsche und Kalmyken, 1942 bis 1945 (Freiburg: Rombach, 1974)
3. A. E. Alekseenkov, "Vnutrennie voiska v Velikoi Otechestvennoi voine" (Doctor of Sciences diss., St. Petersburg Law Institute of the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs, 1995)
4. V. V. Sidorenko, "Deiatel'nost' voisk NKVD na Severnom Kavkaze (1941-1944)" (Candidate of Sciences diss., St. Petersburg, 1993)
5. and M. I. Semiriaga, Kollabomtsionizm: Priroda, tipologiia i proiavleniia v gody Vtoroi mirovoi voiny (Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2000)
6. I. V. Alferova, "Gosudarstvennaia politika v otnoshenii deportirovannykh narodov (30-50-e gody)" (Candidate of Sciences diss., Moscow State University, 1997)
7. Gennadii Marchenko, "Deportatsiia," Don, no. 4 (1998): 212-23
8. Adam S. Khunagov, "Deportatsiia narodov s territorii Krasnodarskogo Kraia i Stavropol'ia" (Candidate of Sciences diss.: Institute of Russian History, Russian Academy of Sciences, 1998)
9. S. V. Ianush, "Bankrotstvo nemetsko-fashistskoi strategii na Kavkaze" (Candidate of Sciences diss., Stavropol', 1998)
10. and D. V. Shabaev, Pravda o vyselenii balkartsev (Nal'chik: El'brus, 1994)
11. William Flemming, "The Deportation of the Chechen and Ingush Peoples: A Critical Examination," in Russia and Chechnia: The Permanent Crisis, ed. Ben Fowkes (London: Macmillan Press, 1998)
12. Robert Seely, Russo-Chechen Conflict, 1800-2000 (London: Frank Cass, 2001)
13. Curtis Richardson, "Stalinist Terror and the Kalmyks' National Revival: A Cultural and Historical Perspective," Journal of Genocide Research 4, 3 (2002): 441-51
14. Zaindi Shakhbiev, Sud'ba checheno-ingushskogo naroda (Moscow: Rossiia molodaia, 1996)
15. and Aleksandr Iakovlev, Po moshcham i elei (Moscow: Evraziia, 1995). Norman Naimark used primary sources on the conflict in Crimea but relied on secondary ones on the Chechen and Ingush resistance. This explains the contrast in the quality of the analysis in Naimark, Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 94-102
16. Abdurahman Avtorkhanov, "The Chechens and Ingush during the Soviet Period and Its Antecedents," in The North Caucasus Barrier, ed. Marie Bennigsen Broxup (London: Hurst and Co., 1992)
17. John B. Dunlop, Russia Confronts Chechnya (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998)
18. and K. I. Chomaev, Nakazannyi narod (Cherkessk: PUL, 1993)
19. N. F. Bugai, ed., Deportatsiia narodov Kryma (Moscow: INSAN, 2002)
20. Bugai and A. M. Gonov, Kavkaz: Narody v eshelonakh (Moscow: INSAN, 1998)
21. and J. Otto Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937-1949 (London: Greenwood, 1999)
22. Ehren Park and David Brandenberger, "Imagined Community? Rethinking the Nationalist Origins of the Contemporary Chechen Crisis," Kritika 5. 3 (2004): 543-60, here 544. These authors produced an excellent analysis of the sources on Chechen resistance
23. Makhach Magomedov, "O nekotorykh osobennostiakh Oktiabr'skoi revoliutsii i grazhdanskoi voiny na Severnom Kavkaze," Otechestvennaia istoriia, no. 6 (1997): 85, 86
24. Fowkes, "Introduction," in Russia and Chechnya, 6
25. and Shabaev, Pravda o vyselenii balkartsev, 20
26. Magomedov, "O nekotorykh osobennostiakh," 88, 89
27. and Marie Bennigsen Broxup, "The Last Ghazawat:The 1920-1921 Uprising," in The North Caucasus Barrier, ed. Broxup, 116-31
28. and Marchenko, "Deportatsiia," 216. Chechen society consisted of large kin groups, some with private and some with communal property. Clan membership presumed common interests and mutual assistance. In 1926-28 the Chechens were divided into 300 clans. Many of them were engaged in vendettas declared by a whole village or a cluster of villages on a rival clan. See Bol'shaia sovetskaia entsiklopediia
29. Ibragimov, "Vlast' i obshchestvo," 385
30. and Marchenko, "Deportatsiia," 216
31. Ibragirnov, "Vlast' i obshchestvo," 122
32. and A. M. Gonov, "Problemy deportatsii i reabilitatsii narodov Severnogo Kavkaza, 20-90-e gody XX veka" (Candidate of Sciences diss., Kabardin-Balkar State University, Nal'chik, 1997), 144
33. and Nekrich, Nakazannye narody, 49
34. Akhmatov, "Dokladnaia zapiska," ll. 49, 50
35. Ibragimov, "Vlast' i obshchestvo," 296
36. John B. Dunlop, for instance, maintains that the People's Commissariat of Nationalities carried out a, chauvinistic policy starting in 1920; he finds evidence of chauvinism in the replacement of the unmanageable Mountaineer autonomous republic with several smaller autonomous regions in 1921-24, the extension of their territories by attaching areas populated by Russians and other ethnic minorities, and the transfer of their orthography from Arabic to the Latin alphabet in 1928-29 (Dunlop, Russia Confronts Chechnya: Roots of a Separatist Conflict [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998], 40-47). These claims are hard to defend
37. Leont'ev, "Doklad," l. 9
38. See also Seely, Russo-Chechen Conflict, 81
39. and Gall and de Waal, Chechnya, 62. This argument is weak. The government did raise the native 114th Chechen and Ingush Cavalry Division on 25 November 1941
40. Leont'ev, "Doklad," l. 177
41. Kabardins and Balkars together lost 3,400 men in the war against Germany, Ossetians 10,700 men, Dagestanis 11,100 men, and Georgians 79,500 men, while Chechens and Ingush lost 2,300 men. See G. F. Krivosheev et al., Rossiia i SSSR v voinakh XX veka: Poteri vooruzhennykh sil (Moscow: OLMA-PRESS, 2001), 238
42. According to I. M. Shamanov, 15,600 Karachais were drafted into the Red Army. See Shamanov et al., eds., Karachaevtsy; Vyselenie i vozvrashchenie (Cherkessk: PUL, 1993), 9
43. and N. F. Bugai, L. Beriia-I. Stalinu: Soglasno vashemu ukazaniiu (Moscow: AIRO-XX, 1995), 98
44. Nakin met resistance in several villages. He exaggerated the number of those killed by his unit, apparently, in an attempt to emphasize his efficiency. In reports filed by the civilian authorities the total killed varies from 373 to 723 (K. G. Azamatov et al., Cherekskaia tragediia [Nal'chik: El'brus, 1994], 55, 150, 155-58, 179-81). The Soviet atrocities in Balkaria are reflected in this valuable collection of documents kept in the archives of the Kabardin-Balkar Republic. Robert Seely claims that the NKVD committed this massacre during its retreat from Nal'chik, which he calls "a town in Ossetia" (Russo-Chechen Conflict, 81). In fact, the Red Army left Nal'chik, the capital of the Kabardin-Balkar republic, in October 1942, a month before this "action."
45. Norman Naimark, "Ethnic Cleansing between War and Peace," in Landscaping the Human Garden, ed. Amir Weiner (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2003), 221
46. Iakovlev, Po moshcham i elei, 128
47. Timur Muzaev, Chechenskaia respublika: Organy vlasti i politicheskie sily (Moscow: Panorama, 1995), 155
48. Flemming, "The Deportation of the Chechen and Ingush Peoples," 74
49. Leont'ev, "Doklad," l. 38
50. and Khalukhaev, "Doklad," l. 280
51. Alexander Dallin, German Rule in Russia, 1941-1945: A Study of Occupation Policies, 2nd ed. (London: Macmillan, 1981), 241
52. Ianush, "Bankrotstvo nemetsko-fashistskoi strategii na Kavkaze," 157. Many more partisans existed only on paper
53. Shamanov et al., eds., Karachaevtsy, 13
54. Alexander Werth, Russia at War, 1941-1945 (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1964), 581
55. and Mazin, "Spravka," l. 3. The writer Nikolai Gorbachev retold the tale in a novel published in 1989
56. see Gorbachev, "Smertnye," Moskva, no. 7 (1989): 41, 42. Had he looked at a map, he would have found out that the town of Achkhoi-Mattan, in which he claims Chechens gave the white horse to the Germans, was about 40 kilometers to the east of the point of maximum German penetration into the Chechen-Ingush republic
57. Dallin, German Rule in Russia, 248, 249
58. Leont'ev, "Doklad," l. 62
59. Leont'ev, "Doklad," ll. 38, 40, 61, 68
60. Leont'ev, "Doklad," ll. 20, 39, 59
61. Semiriaga, Kollaboratsionizm, 465
62. V. P. Galitskii, "Obiazuius' pomoch' nemetskoi armii," Voenno-istoricheskii zhurnal, no. 3 (2000): 44
63. Igor' Pykhalov, "'Kavkazskie orly Tret'ego Reikha," Spetsnaz Rossii, 61, 10 (2001): 1
64. Avtorkhanov, "The Chechens and Ingush," 183
65. Leont'ev, "Doklad," l. 40
66. Secret police documents do not confirm the claims made by Alexandre Bennigsen and Marie Bennigsen Broxup that the Ingush provided "the main fighting force" for the Chechen-Ingush resistance in 1941-43. See Bennigsen, "Muslim Guerrilla Warfare in the Caucasus (1918-1928)," Central Asian Survey 2, 1 (1983): 54
67. and Broxup, "The Last Ghazawat," 114. Insurgency occurred primarily in mountain regions populated by Chechens
68. V. Ubushaev, "Otriady CHON Kalmytskoi oblasti v bor'be s vnutrennei kontrrevoliutsiei (1920-1924 gg.)," Voenno-istoricheskii zhurnal, no. 9 (1974): 82-85
69. Richardson, "Stalinist Terror," 443
70. Poliakov et al., eds., Vsesoiuznaia perepis "naseleniia, 66
71. P. Lavrent'ev, secretary of the Kalmyk Provincial Party Committee, "O sostoianii Kalmytskoi ASSR" (4 December 1942), RGASPI f. 69, op. 1, d. 392, l. 24
72. Hoffmann, Deutsche und Kalmyken, 62, 65
73. P. Kasatkin, secretary of the Personnel Office of the Kalmyk Provincial Party Committee, "Ob itogakh partizanskogo dvizheniia v Kalmytskoi ASSR" (15 March 1943), RGASPI f. 69, op. 1, d. 393, ll. 24, 25
74. Leont'ev, "Doklad," ll. 55, 56
75. and Hoffmann, Deutsche und Kalmyken, 187. By 1945, the "Corps" rose to 5,000 men, reinforced by collaborators of various ethnic backgrounds who retreated with the Germans
76. See A. V. Okorokov, Antisovetskie voinskie formirovaniia v gody vtoroi mirovoi voiny (Moscow: Voennyi universitet, 2000), 90
77. Lavrent'ev, "O sostoianii Kalmytskoi ASSR," ll. 24, 25
78. Ryzhikov, "Spisok komandirov partizanskikh otriadov" (31 December 1942), RGASPI f. 69, op. 1, d. 392, ll. 59-65
79. Lavrent'ev, "O sostoianii Kalmytskoi ASSR" (1 November 1942), RGASPI f. 17, op. 88, d. 126, l. 29
80. Leont'ev, "Doklad," ll. 57, 58
81. Alan Fisher, The Crimean Tatars (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1978), 89, 93
82. In contrast, other ethnic groups living in Crimea, except the Bulgarians, increased their landholdings by only 16 percent. The Bulgarians increased theirs by 60 percent. See Brian Glyn Williams, The Crimean Tatars: The Diaspora Experience and the Forging of a Nation (Leiden: Brill, 2001), 351, 352
83. and Viktor Denningkhaus [Victor Dönninghaus], "Polietnichnost' skvoz' prizmu klassovogo podkhöda," Otechestvennaia istoriia, no. 2 (1999): 116
84. These preparations were initiated on 4 July 1941, four months before Crimea was overrun by the Germans. See A. V. Basov, Krym v Velikoi Otechestvennoi voine (Moscow: Nauka, 1987), 192
85. Basov, Krym, 194
86. Colonel M. T. Lobov, commander of the Partisan Movement in Crimea, to Ponomarenko, "Doklad o deistviiakh v Krymu" (14 December 1942), RGASPI f. 69. op. 1, d. 618, ll. 46, 47
87. Anatolii S. Chaikovskii, "Pomoshch' sovetskogo tyla v organizatsii partizanskoi bor'by protiv fashistskikh zakhvatchikov na vremennookkupirovannoi territorii SSSR 1941-44" (Doctor of Sciences diss., Institute of Ukrainian History, Kiev, 1991), 127, 128
88. Lobov, "Doklad," ll. 41, 42
89. "Soveshchanie," ll. 8, 10
90. Vladimir Bulatov, representative of the Central Partisan Headquarters in Crimea, "Stenogramma soveshchaniia nachal'nikov razvedotdelov mestnykh ShPD" (10-12 June 1943), RGASPI f. 69, op. 1, d. 726, l. 112. Il'ia Vergasov, chief of staff of the Yalta partisan unit, attributed loss of his food depots to the treason of a single person, Mitin, a Russian forest ranger (Vergasov, Krymskie tetradi [Moscow: Sovetskii pisatel', 1969], 29, 90, 107)
91. Vergasov, Krymskie tetradi, 124, 125, 127
92. Vergasov, Krymskie tetradi, 290-94
93. Bulatov, "Stenogramma soveshchaniia," l. 112
94. Beriia, "Dokladnaia zapiska" (25 April 1944), ll. 319, 320
95. Metelev, "Razvedsvodka o protivnikc," 13, 14
96. G. A. Litvin, "Krymsko-tatarskie formirovaniia," Voenno-istoricheskii zhurnal, no. 3 (1991): 91
97. Bugai, L. Beriia-I. Stalinu, 146
98. and V. A. Zolotarev and G. N. Sevost'ianov, eds., Velikaia Otechestvennaia voina 1941-1945: Voenno-istoricheskie ocherki, 4 vols. (Moscow: Nauka, 1998-99), vol. 4, 155
99. Litvin, "Krymsko-tatarskie formirovaniia," 94, 95
100. Vergasov, "Raport o boevoi deiatel'nosti otriadov 4-go raiona," l. 19
101. "Pro stat'iu A. S. Chaikovs'kogo 'Partyzans'kyi rukh u Krymu,'" Ukrains'kyi istorychnyi zhurnal, no. 11 (1991): 158
102. and Vergasov, Krymskie tetradi, 521, 522. It is possible the battalion was only one company strong at that moment
103. Beriia, "Dokladnaia zapiska" (25 April 1944), l. 320
104. Poliakov et al., eds., Vsesoiuznaia perepis' naseleniia 1939 goda, 67
105. Amir Weiner, "Nature and Nurture in a Socialist Utopia: Delineating the Soviet Socio-Ethnic Body in the Age of Socialism," in Stalinism: The Essential Readings, ed. David L. Hoffmann (Oxford: Blackwell, 2003), 243-53
106. S. I. Drobiazko, "Lokotskii avtonomnyi okrug i Russkaia Osvoboditel'naia Narodnaia Armiia," in Materialy po istorii russkogo osvoboditel'nogo dvizheniia, 1941-1945 gg.: Stat'i, dokumenty, vospominaniia, ed. A. V. Okorokov, 2 vols. (Moscow: Graal', 1997-98), vol. 2, 194
107. Mazin, "Spravka," l. 5
108. V. Sergienko, people's commissar of internal affairs of the Crimean Autonomous Republic, "Orientirovka o deiatel'nosti bolgarskikh natsionalistov v Krymu" (30 October 1944), GARF f. 9478, op. 1, d. 284, ll. 10, 11
109. Sergienko, "Orientirovka o deiatel'nosti armianskikh natsionalistov v Krymu" (30 October 1944), GARF f. 9478, op. 1, d. 284, ll. 1-6
110. Chomaev, Nakazannyi narod, 28