Imagined community? Rethinking the nationalist origins of the contemporary chechen crisis

Kritika

Volumn 5, Issue 3, 2004, Pages 543-560

  Park, Ehren ^a   Brandenberger, David ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 60950128679     PISSN: 1531023X     EISSN: 15385000     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/kri.2004.0044     Document Type: Article

References (70)

1. Zaindi Shakhbiev, Sud'ba checheno-ingushskogo naroda (Moscow: Rossiia molodaia, 1996), chaps. 3-11
2. Dzhabril Gakaev, Ocherki politicheskoi istorii Chechni (XX vek) (Moscow: ChKTs, 1997), chap. 1
3. Anatol Lieven, Chechnya: Tombstone of Russian Power (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), chap. 9, esp. 304
4. Ben Fowkes, "Introduction," in Russia and Chechnia: The Permanent Crisis, ed. Fowkes (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998), 1-24
5. John B. Dunlop, Russia Confronts Chechnya: Roots of a Separatist Conflict (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), chaps 1-2, esp. 35,48
6. Sebastian Smith, Allah's Mountains: Politics and War in the Russian Caucasus (London: I. B. Tauris, 1998), part 2
7. J. Otto Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937-1949 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999), chap. 6
8. Georgii Derluguian, "Chechenskaia revoliutsiia i chechenskaia istoriia," in Chechnia i Rossiia: Obshchestva i gosudarstva (Moscow: Polinform-Talburi, 1999), 206-7
9. A. Blinskii, ed., Rossiia i Chechnia: 200-letniaia voina (St. Petersburg: Satis, 2000)
10. Chechnia: Belaia kniga (Moscow: RIA Novosti, 2000), 16-17
11. Robert Seely, Russo-Chechen Conflict, 1800-2000: A Deadly Embrace (Portland: Frank Cass, 2001), chaps. 1-3
12. and Matthew Evangelista, The Chechen Wars: Will Russia Go the Way of the Soviet Union? (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2002), 12-15. A significant exception to the rule is Norman Naimark's Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001), 85-107
13. T. I. Bondareva, "Chto stalo s arkhivami Chechenskoi Respubliki," Otechestvennye arkhivy, no. 3 (1995): 22-24
14. Fowkes, "Introduction," 23 n. 38. A critical source for many Western accounts, Avtorkhanov is ignored in most Russian-language works because of his pro-Chechen sympathies
15. Avtorkhanov, Ubiistvo checheno-ingusbskogo naroda: Narodoubiistvo v SSSR (Moscow: Vsia Moskva, 1991)
16. Uralov [Avtorkhanov], Ubiistvo checheno-ingushskogo naroda, 5-6, 22, 24. For secondary sources echoing the spread of the revolt
17. see Shakhbiev, Sud'ba checheno-ingushskogo naroda, 202
18. and Dunlop, Russia Confronts Chechnya, 49, 51
19. Uralov [Avtorkhanov], Ubiistvo checheno-ingitshskogo naroda, 22-23. For secondary accounts of the manifesto
20. see Shakhbiev, Sud'ba checheno-ingiishskogo naroda, 201-2
21. and Dunlop, Russia Confronts Chechnya, 50
22. Uralov [Avtorkhanov], Ubiistvo checheno-ingiishskogo naroda, 6, 64-65
23. Uralov [Avtorkhanov], Ubiistvo checheno-ingiishskogo naroda, 24, 26. For echoes of this account in the secondary literature
24. see Timur Muzaev, Chechenskaia respiiblika: Organy vlasti i politicheskie sily (Moscow: Panorama, 1995), 154
25. Shakhbiev, Sud'ba checheno-ingiishskogo naroda, 202-3
26. Uralov [Avtorkhanov], Ubiistvo checheno-ingushskogo naroda, 26-31. For this account's reflection in the secondary sources
27. Michael David-Fox, "Memory, Archives, Politics: The Rise of Stalin in Avtorkhanov's Technology of Power," Slavic Review 54, 4 (1995): 995
28. see Robert Conquest, The Great Terror: Stalin's Purge of the Thirties (New York: Macmillan, 1968), 287
29. Conquest, The Nation Killers: The Soviet Deportation of Nationalities (New York, Macmillan, 1970), 97
30. Bohdan Nahaylo and Victor Swoboda, Soviet Disunion: A History of the Nationalities Problem in the USSR (New York: Free Press, 1990), 80
31. Gerhard Simon, Nationalism and Policy toward the Nationalities in the Soviet Union: From Totalitarian Dictatorship to Post-Stalinist Society, trans. Karen and Oswald Forster (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991), 160
32. A. N. Iakovlev, Po moshcham i elei (Moscow: Evraziia, 1995), 120-21
33. Shakhbiev, Sud'ba checheno-ingushskogo naroda, 210-11
34. Smith, Allah's Mountains, 58
35. and Seely, Russo-Chechen Conflict, 80
36. Avtorkhanov, Memuary, 167, 207
37. and Avtorkhanov, "Pochemu likvidirovana Checheno-ingushskaia respublika," typescript, Hoover Institution Archives, Dallin, box 2-8, 50, cited in Naimark, Fires of Hatred, 94 n. 44
38. Alexander Nekrich, The Punished Peoples: The Deportation and Fate of Soviet Minorities at the End of the Second World War, trans. George Saunders (New York: W. W. Norton, 1978), 3-4. Nekrich's career as a historian was cut short in 1967 after his publication of the first Soviet book to question the party's decision-making in the wake of the Nazi invasion; he emigrated in 1976
39. Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 81
40. and Naimark, Fires of Hatred, 218 n. 39
41. Nekrich, Punished Peoples, 44-45. Internal evidence in Nekrich's account makes it clear that he has the same campaign in mind: "One such expedition was undertaken in the winter of 1929-30 in connection with a rumor that many 'kulaks' had gathered in the hills. Included in the expedition were kttrsanty (cadets) from the Vladikavkaz Infantry School for Middle-Echelon Officers, a cavalry regiment of Caucasian nationals, units of the Twenty-Eighth Mountain Rifle Division (Russian units only), as many as two OGPU divisions, and a number of other units." Gakaev describes a campaign of similar dimensions on the basis of Red Army archival sources in Ocherki politicheskoi istorii Chechni, 92
42. Danilov, Manning, and Viola, eds., Tragediia sovetskoi derevni
43. and Aleksei Berelovich [Alexis Berelowitch] and Viktor Danilov, eds., Sovetskaia derevniaglazami VChK-OGPU-NKVD, 1918-1939
44. Dokmnenty i materialy, 4 vols. (Moscow: RossrEN, 199S-)
45. Vladimir Loginov, ed., Kavkazskie orly (Ad kriminala-biblioteka al'manakha "Shpion"), no. 1 (Moscow: Mistikos, 1993)
46. Pavel Aptekar', "Vtoroe pokorenie Kavkaza: Bol'sheviki i chechenskie povstantsy," Rodina, no. 6 (1995): 43-48
47. Jeremy Smith, "Nation Building and National Conflict in the USSR in the 1920s," Ab Imperio, no. 3 (2001): 249-50. A literal reading of the svodki is visible in recent works like N. A. Ivnitskii, Repressivnaia politika sovetskoi vlasti v derevne (1928-1933 gg.) (Moscow: Institut rossiiskoi istorii RAN, 2000)
48. See the dictionary definition in D. N. Ushakov, ed., Tolkovyi slovar' russkogo iazyka, vol. 1 (Moscow: Sovetskaia entsiklopediia, 1935), 85-86
49. Semen Dimanshtein, "Bol'shevistskii otpor natsionalizmu," Revoliutsiia inatsional'nosti, no. 4 (1933): 5. Soviet dictionaries from the 1930s refer to nationalists as bourgeois elements who "blunt the intensity of class contradictions by igniting nationalistic passions and preaching about issues that the whole nation supposedly has 'in common.'" Nationalism is described as a form of propaganda that sets one ethnicity against another through the elevation of one's own ethnic identity or the denigration of others
50. See N. F. Bugai and A. M. Gonov, Kavkaz: Narody v eshelonakh (20-60-e gody) (Moscow: Insan, 1998), 136-37
51. V. P. Galitskii, "'Dlia aktivnoi podryvnoi diversionnoi deiatel'nosti v tylu u Krasnoi Armii': O natsionalisticheskikh vystupleniiakh v Checheno-Ingushskoi ASSR v gody voiny i ikh roli v organizatsii fashistskikh spetssluzhb," Voenno-istoricheskii zhunral, no. 1 (2001): 17-25
52. and A. F. Strel'tsov, "Kavkaz v otechestvennoi voennoi istorii," Voenno-istoricheskii zhurnal, no. 3 (2002): 43-45
53. See N. F. Bugai, "Pravda o deportatsii chechenskogo i ingushskogo narodov," Voprosy istorii, no. 7 (1990): 52-44
54. Bugai, L. Beriia-I. Stalinn: "Soglasno vashemu ukazaniiu⋯ " (Moscow: AIRO-XX, 1995), 90-119
55. N. A. Ivnitskii, Kollektivizatsiia i raskulachivanie (nachalo 30-kh godov) (Moscow: Magistr, 1996), 156-58
56. see Galitskii, "'Dlia aktivnoi podryvnoi diversionnoi deiatel'nosti v tylu u Krasnoi Armii,'" 17-25
57. Pykhalov, "Za chto Stalin vyselial narody," 86-121
58. and Strel'tsov, "Kavkaz v otechestvennoi voennoi istorii," 43-45- Aptekar' advances the reductionist argument that it was the Soviets' heavy-handed use of force in Dagestan in the 1920s that insulated the region from later Chechen unrest in his "Povstantsy," Rodina, no. 1-2 (2000): 154-56
59. See also V. P. Veprintsev and N. A. Mochalin, "Bandity stremilis' ⋯ sokhranit' fashistskii poriadok," Voenno-istoricheskii zlmrnal, no. 5 (1996): 83-89
60. and V. V. Cherepanov, "Udary v spinu Krasnoi armii nanosili v 1941-1942 gg. vooruzhennye chechenskie natsionalisty," Voenno-istoricbeskii zlmrnal, no. 1 (1997): 60-62
61. The literature on national identity formation is vast. For a recent summary, see Anthony D. Smith, Nationalism and Modernism: A Critical Survey of Recent Theories of Nations and Nationalism (New York: Routledge, 1998). On the delayed development of national identities in the region
62. see Jane Ormrod, "The North Caucasus: Confederation in Conflict," in New States, New Politics: Building the Post-Soviet Nations, ed. Ian Bremmer and Ray Taras (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 97-98
63. see Igor' Zadvornov and Aleksandr Khalmukkhamedov, "Teipy i tukkumy," Rodina, no. 1-2 (2000): 28-30. Although identity during the interwar period was chiefly linked to clan ties, there also seems to have been a sense of membership in a supra-ethnic highlander community as well
64. See N. G. Volkova and L. I. Lavrov, "Sovremennye etnicheskie protsessy," in Kul'tura ibyt narodov Severnogo Kavkaza, ed. E. P. Prokhorov (Moscow: Nauka, 1968), 330
65. See Lynne Viola, Peasant Rebels under Stalin: Collectivization and the Culture of Peasant Resistance (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996)
66. see also Aptekar', "Vtoroe pokorenie Kavkaza," 43-48
67. and Lashkov, "'Za Terekom dlia banditov zemli net,'" 7-14. Note that in each case, the localized nature of the uprisings is visible in the relatively low number of casualties and confiscated weapons. Women and children caught in the crossfire seem to have been counted among the insurgent dead in order to inflate their numbers
68. Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996)
69. See, for instance, Leo Kuper, Genocide: Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981), 30-32
70. For an example of a recent, anthropologically informed study of Chechens in Kazakh exile that skirts many of the methodological difficulties that plague the field, see Michaela Pohl, "The Virgin Lands between Memory and Forgetting: People and Transformation in the Soviet Union, 1954-1960" (Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, 1999)