Current diagnosis and treatment of infective endocarditis

Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy

Volumn 1, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 639-654

  Tak, Tahir ^a   Dhawan, Sumeesh ^a   Reynolds, Cory ^a   Shukla, Sanjay K ^a  

^a MARSHFIELD CLINIC   (United States)

Author keywords

Acute endocarditis; Culture negative endocarditis; Infective endocarditis; Molecular detection; Prosthetic valve endocarditis; Subacute endocarditis

Indexed keywords

AMINOGLYCOSIDE; AMPHOTERICIN B; AMPICILLIN; BETA LACTAM ANTIBIOTIC; CEFOTAXIME; CEFTRIAXONE; FLUOROURACIL; GENTAMICIN; NAFCILLIN; OXACILLIN; PENICILLIN G; PIPERACILLIN; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; RIFAMPICIN; TICARCILLIN; TOBRAMYCIN; VANCOMYCIN;

ALPHA HEMOLYTIC STREPTOCOCCUS; BACTERIAL ENDOCARDITIS; BACTERIUM CULTURE; CLINICAL LABORATORY; COAGULASE NEGATIVE STAPHYLOCOCCUS; DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURE; DIAGNOSTIC TEST; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG POTENTIATION; ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; HUMAN; INCIDENCE; KIDNEY DYSFUNCTION; OUTCOMES RESEARCH; POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; REVIEW; UNITED STATES;

EID: 3042737577     PISSN: 14787210     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/14787210.1.4.639     Document Type: Review

References (136)

1. Mylonakis E, Calderwood. SB. Infective endocarditis in adults. N. Engl. J. Med. 345, 1318-1330 (2001).
2. Brouqui P, Raoult D. Endocarditis due to rare and fastidious bacteria. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 14, 177-207 (2001).
3. Tak T, Reed KD, Haselby RC, McCauley CS Jr, Shukla SK. An update on the epidemiology, pathogenesis and management of infective endocarditis with emphasis on Staphylococcus aureus. WMJ 101, 24-33 (2002).
4. Wilson WR, Karchmer AW, Dajani AS et al. Antibiotic treatment of adults with infective endocarditis due to streptococci, enterococci, staphylococci and HACEK microorganisms. American Heart Association. JAMA 274, 1706-1713 (1995).
5. Molavi A. Endocarditis: recognition, management and prophylaxis. Cardiovasc. Clin. 23, 139-174 (1993).
6. Griffin MR, Wilson WR, Edwards WD, O'Fallon WM, Kurland LT. Infective endocarditis. Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1950 through 1981. JAMA 254, 1199-1202 (1985).
7. Hogevik H, Olaison L, Andersson R, Lindberg J, Alestig K. Epidemiologic aspects of infective endocarditis in an urban population. A 5-year prospective study. Medicine (Baltimore) 74, 324-339 (1995).
8. Durack DT, Lukes AS, Bright DK. New criteria for diagnosis of infective endocarditis: utilization of specific echocardiographic findings. Duke Endocarditis Service. Am. J. Med. 96, 200-209 (1994).
9. Hoen B, Beguinot I, Rabaud C et al. The Duke criteria for diagnosing infective endocarditis are specific: analysis of 100 patients with acute fever or fever of unknown origin. Clin. Infect. Dis. 23, 298-302 (1996).
10. Shukla SY, Tak T, Haselby RC, McCauley CS Jr, Reed KD. Second case of infective endocarditis caused by Gemella sanguinis. WMJ 101, 37-39 (2002).
11. Relman DA, Schmidt TM, MacDermott RP, Falkow S. Identification of the uncultured bacillus of Whipple's disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 327, 293-301 (1992).
12. Millar B, Moore J, Mallon P, Xu J et al. Molecular diagnosis of infective endocarditis - a new Duke's criterion. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 33, 673-680 (2001).
13. Wilck MB, Wu Y, Howe JG, Crouch JY, Edberg; SC. Endocarditis caused by culture-negative organisms visible by Brown and Brenn staining: utility of PCR and DNA sequencing for diagnosis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 39, 2025-2027 (2001).
14. Rothman RE, Majmudar MD, Kelen GD et al. Detection of bacteremia in emergency department patients at risk for infective endocarditis using universal 16S rRNA primers in a decontaminated polymerase chain reaction assay. J. Infect. Dis. 186, 1677-1681 (2002).
15. Morris AJ, Drinkovic D, Pottumarthy S et al. Gram stain, culture and histopathological examination findings for heart valves removed because of infective endocarditis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 36, 697-704 (2003).
16. Musso D, Raoult D. Coxiella burnetii blood cultures from acute and chronic Q-fever patients. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33, 3129-3132 (1995).
17. Muhlemann K, Matter L, Meyer B, Schopfer K. Isolation of Coxiella burnetii from heart valves of patients treated for Q fever endocarditis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33, 428-431 (1995).
18. Cope AP, Heber M, Wilkins EG. Valvular tuberculous endocarditis: a case report and review of the literature. J. Infect. Dis. 21, 293-296 (1990).
19. Bhattacharya B, Karak K, Ghosal AG et al. Development of a new sensitive and efficient multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for identification and differentiation of different mycobacterial species. Trop. Med. Int. Health 8, 150-157 (2003).
20. Raoult D, Birg ML, La Scola B et al. Cultivation of the bacillus of Whipple's disease. N. Engl. J. Med 342, 620-625 (2000).
21. Qin Y, Urdahl KB. PCR and sequencing of independent genetic targets for the diagnosis of culture negative bacterial endocarditis. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 40, 145-149 (2001).
22. Pate MA, Adegbola RA, Ison C, Corrah T. Neisseria gonorrhoeae endocarditis. Trop. Doct. 26, 131 (1996).
23. Agnihotri AK, McGiffin DC, Galbraith AJ, O'Brien MF. The prevalence of infective endocarditis after aortic valve replacement. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 110, 1708-1720 (1995).
24. Vlessis AA, Hovaguimian H, Jaggers J, Ahmad A, Starr A. Infective endocarditis: 10-year review of medical and surgical therapy. Ann. Thorac. Surg. 61, 1217-1222 (1996).
25. Calderwood SB, Swinski LA, Waternaux CM, Karchmer AW, Buckley MJ. Risk factors for the development of prosthetic valve endocarditis. Circulation 72, 31-37 (1985).
26. Arvay A, Lengyel M. Incidence and risk factors of prosthetic valve endocarditis. Eur. J. Cardiothorac. Surg. 2, 340-346 (1988).
27. Grover FL, Cohen DJ, Oprian C, Henderson WG, Sethi G, Hammermeister KE. Determinants of the occurrence of and survival from prosthetic valve endocarditis. Experience of the Veterans Affairs Co-operative Study on Valvular Heart Disease. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 108, 207-214 (1994).
28. Richardson JV, Karp RB, Kirklin JW, Dismukes WE. Treatment of infective endocarditis: a 10-year comparative analysis. Circulation 58, 589-597 (1978).
29. Dismukes WE, Karchmer AW, Buckley MJ, Austen WG, Swartz MN. Prosthetic valve endocarditis. Analysis of 38 cases. Circulation 48, 365-377 (1973).
30. Karchmer AW, Gibbons GW. Infections of prosthetic heart valves and vascular grafts. In: Infections Associated with Indwelling Medical Devices. Bisno AL, Waldvogel FA (Eds). American Society for Microbiology Press, DC, USA, 213-249 (1994).
31. Karchmer AW, Archer GL, Dismukes WE. Staphylococcus epidermidis causing prosthetic valve endocarditis: microbiologic and clinical observations as guides to therapy. Ann. Intern. Med. 98, 447-455 (1983).
32. Karchmer AW. Infective endocarditis. In: Heart Disease. A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine, Vol. 2, 6th Edition. Braunwald E, Zipes DP, Libby P (Eds). WB Saunders Co, PA, USA, 1723-1750 (2001).
33. Durack DT, Beeson PB. Experimental bacterial endocarditis. II. Survival of a bacteria in endocardial vegetations. Br. J. Exp. Pathol. 53, 50-53 (1972).
34. Bayer AS, Scheld WM. Endocarditis and intravascular infections. In: Mandell, Douglas and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, Vol. 1, 5th Edition. Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R (Eds). Churchill Livingstone, NY, USA, 857-902 (2000).
35. Breen JD, Karchner AW. Usefulness of pulsed-field gel electrophoresis in confirming endocarditis due to Staphylococcus lugdunensis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 19, 985-986 (1994).
36. Aronin SI, Mukherjee SK, West JC, Cooney EL. Review of pneumococcal endocarditis in adults in the penicillin era. Clin. Infect. Dis. 26, 165-171 (1998).
37. Lefort A, Mainardi JL, Selton-Suty C, Casassus P, Guillevin L, Lortholary O. Streptococcus pneumoniae endocarditis in adults. A multicenter study in France in the era of penicillin resistance (1991-1998). The Pneumococcal Endocarditis Study Group. Medicine (Baltimore) 79, 327-337 (2000).
38. DiNubile MJ. Short-course antibiotic therapy for right-sided endocarditis caused by Staphylococcus aureus in injection drug users. Ann. Intern. Med. 121, 873-876 (1994).
39. Korzeniowski O, Sande MA. Combination antimicrobial therapy for Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis in patients addicted to parenteral drugs and in nonaddicts: a prospective study. Ann. Intern. Med. 97, 496-503 (1982).
40. Karchmer AW. Infections of prosthetic heart valves. In: Infections Associated with Indwelling Medical Devices, 3rd Edition. Waldvogel FA, Bisno AL (Eds). American Society fbr Microbiology, DC, USA, 145 (2000).
41. Van Scoy RE. Culture-negative endocarditis. Mayo Clin. Proc. 57, 149-154 (1982).
42. Hoen B, Selton-Suty C, Lacassin F et al. Infective endocarditis in patients with negative blood cultures: analysis of 88 cases from a one-year nationwide survey in France. Clin. Infect. Dis. 20, 501-506 (1995).
43. Melgar GR, Nasser RM, Gordon SM, Lytle BW, Keys TF, Longworth DL. Fungal prosthetic valve endocarditis in 16 patients. An 11-year experience in a tertiary care hospital. Medicine (Baltimore) 76, 94-103 (1997).
44. Saag MS, Graybill RJ, Larsen RA et al. Practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease. Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin. Infect. Dis. 30, 710-718 (2000).
45. Czwerwiec FS, Bilsker MS, Kamerman ML, Bisno AL. Long-term survival after fluconazole therapy of candidal prosthetic valve endocarditis. Am. J. Med. 94, 545-546 (1993).
46. Nguyen MH, Nguyen ML, Yu VL, McMahon D, Keys TF, Amidi M. Candida prosthetic valve endocarditis: prospective study of six cases and review of the literature. Clin. Infect. Dis. 22, 262-267 (1996).
47. Anon. ACC/AHA guidelines for the management of patients with valvular heart disease. A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association. Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee on Management of Patients with Valvular Heart Disease). J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 32, 1486-1588 (1998).
48. Alsip SG, Blackstone EH, Kirklin JW, Cobbs CG. Indications for cardiac surgery in patients with active infective endocarditis. Am. J. Med. 78(6B), 138-148 (1985).
49. Kay PH, Oldershaw PJ, Dawkins K, Lennox SC, Panedi M. The results of surgery for active endocarditis of the native aortic valve. J. Cardiovasc. Surg. (Torino). 25, 321-327 (1984).
50. Calderwood SB, Swinski LA, Karchmer AW, Waternaux CM, Buckley MJ. Prosthetic valve endocarditis. Analysis of factors affecting outcome of therapy. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 92, 776-783 (1986).
51. Castillo JC, Anguita MP, Ramirez A et al. Long-term outcome of infective endocarditis in patients who were not drug addicts: a 10 year study. Heart 83, 525-530 (2000).
52. Wallace SM, Walton BI, Kharbanda RK, Hardy R, Wilson AP, Swanton RH. Mortality from infective endocarditis: clinical predictors of outcome. Heart 88, 53-60 (2002).
53. Gauduchon V, Chalabreysse L, Etienne J et al. Molecular diagnosis of infective endocarditis by PCR amplification and direct sequencing of DNA from valve tissue. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41, 763-766 (2003).
54. Delahaye F, Ecochard R, de Gevigney G et al. The long-term prognosis of infective endocarditis. Eur. Heart J. 16(Suppl. B), 48-53 (1995).
55. Goldenberger D, Kunzli A, Vogt P, Zbinden R, Altwegg M. Molecular diagnosis of bacterial endocarditis by broad-range PCR amplification and direct sequencing. J. Clin. Microbiol. 35, 2733-2739 (1997).
56. Lindner JR, Case RA, Dent JM, Abbott RD, Schedl WM, Kaul S. Diagnostic value of echocardiography in suspected endocarditis. An evaluation based on the pretest probability of disease. Circulation 93, 730-736 (1996).
57. Shively BK, Gurule FT, Roldan CA, Leggett JH, Schiller NB Diagnostic value of transesophageal compared with transthoracic echocardiography in infective endocarditis. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 18, 391-397 (1991).
58. Tak T, Rahimtoola SH, Kumar A, Gamage N, Chandraratna PA. Value of digital image processing of two-dimensional echocardiograms in differentiating active from chronic vegetations of infective endocarditis. Circulation 78, 116-123 (1988).
59. Mendes CM, Oplustil CP, dos Santos TJ, Mady C. Clostridium perfringens as a cause of infectious endocarditis in a patient with a vascular prosthesis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 22, 866-867 (1996).
60. Daniels C, Schoors D, van Camp G. Native valve endocarditis with aorta-to-left atrial fistula due to Corynebacterium amycolatum. Eur. J. Echocardiogr. 4, 68-70 (2003).
61. Patey O, Bimet F, Riegel P et al. Clinical and molecular study of Corynebacterium diphtheriae systemic infections in France. Coryne Study Group. J. Clin. Microbiol. 35, 441-445 (1997).
62. Morris A, Guild I. Endocarditis due to Corynebacterium pseudodiphtheriticum: five case reports, review and antibiotic susceptibilities of nine strains. Rev. Infect. Dis. 13, 887-892 (1991).
63. Pessanha B, Farb A, Lwin T, Lloyd B, Virmani R. Infectious endocarditis due to Corynebacterium xerosis. Cardiovasc. Pathol. 12, 98-101 (2003).
64. Low YL, Jakubovics NS, Flatman JC, Jenkinson HF, Smith AW. Manganese-dependent regulation of the endocarditis-associated virulence factor EfaA of Enterococcus faecalis. J. Med. Microbiol. 52(Pt 2), 113-119 (2003).
65. Ko SB, Kim DE, Kwon HM, Roh JK. A case of multiple brain infarctions associated with Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae endocarditis. Arch. Neurol. 60, 434-436 (2003).
66. Matsis PP, Easthope RN. Gemella haemolysans endocarditis. Aust. NZJ. Med. 24, 417-418 (1994).
67. Benes J, Picha D, Kabelkova M, Dzupova O, Horova B, Gabrielova A. Infective endocarditis caused by unusual Gram-positive pathogens. Folia Microbiol. (Praha) 47, 737-741 (2002).
68. Woo PC, Fung AM, Lau SK et al. Granulicatella adiacens and Abiotrophia defectiva bacteraemia characterized by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. J. Med. Microbiol. 52(Pt 2), 137-140 (2003).
69. Roggenkamp A, Leitritz L, Baus K, Falsen E, Heesemann J. PCR for detection and identification of Abiotrophia spp. J. Clin. Microbiol. 36, 2844-2846 (1998).
70. Husni RN, Gordon SM, Washington JA, Longworth DL. Lactobacillus bacteremia and endocarditis: review of 45 cases. Clin. Infect. Dis. 25, 1048-1055 (1997).
71. Spyrou N, Anderson M, Foale R. Listeria endocarditis: current management and patient outcome-world literature review. Heart 77, 380-383 (1997).
72. Boudewijns M, Magerman K, Verhaegen J et al. Rothia dentocariosa, endocarditis and mycotic aneurysms: case report and review of the literature. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 9, 222-229 (2003).
73. Moore MR, Perdreau-Remington F, Chambers HF. Vancomycin treatment failure associated with heterogeneous vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus in a patient with endocarditis and in the rabbit model of endocarditis. Antimicrob. Agents. Chemother. 47, 1262-1266 (2003).
74. Andrade-Baiocchi S, Tognim MC, Baiocchi OC, Sader HS. Endocarditis due to glycopeptide-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus: case report and strain characterization. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 45, 149-152 (2003).
75. Weinberg JB, Blackwood RA. Case report of Staphylococcus aureus endocarditis after navel piercing. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 22, 94-96 (2003).
76. Kocazeybek B, Ozder A, Kucukoglu S, Kucukates E, Yuksel H, Olga R. Report of a case with polymicrobial endocarditis related to multiresistant strains. Chemotherapy 48, 316-319 (2002).
77. Shuttleworth R, Colby WD. Staphylococcus lugdunensis endocarditis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 30, 1948-1952 (1992).
78. Rubin SJ, Lyons RW, Murcia AJ. Endocarditis associated with cardiac catheterization due to a Gram-positive coccus designated Micrococcus mucilaginosus incertae sedis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 7, 546-549 (1978).
79. Butler JC, Lennox JL, McDougal LK, Sutcliffe JA, Tait-Kamradt A, Tenover FC. Macrolide-resistant pneumococcal endocarditis and epidural abscess that develop during erythromycin therapy. Clin. Infect. Dis. 36, e19-e25 (2003).
80. Udayaraj UP, Gendi NS, Osman EM. Septic discitis as a complication of infective endocarditis caused by Streptococcus oralis. J. Rheumatol. 30, 632-633 (2003).
81. Vilaichone RK, Vilaichone W, Nunthapisud P, Wilde H. Streptococcus suis infection in Thailand. J. Med. Assoc. Thai. 85(Suppl. 1), S109-S117 (2002).
82. Geissdorfer W, Wittmann I, Rollinghoff M, Schoerner C, Bogdan C. Detection of a new 16S-23S rRNA spacer sequence variant (type 7) of Tropheryma whippelii in a patient with prosthetic aortic valve endocarditis. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 20, 762-763 (2001).
83. Geraci JE, Wilson WR. Symposium on infective endocarditis. III. Endocarditis due to Gram-negative bacteria. Report of 56 cases. Mayo Clin. Proc. 57, 145-148 (1982).
84. Ong KR, Sordillo E, Frankel E. Unusual case of Aeromonas hydrophila endocarditis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 29, 1056-1057 (1991).
85. Brook I. Endocarditis due to anaerobic bacteria. Cardiology 98, 1-5 (2002).
86. Bisharat N, Goldstein L, Raz R, Elias M. Gram-negative anaerobic endocarditis: two case reports and review of the literature. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 20, 651-654 (2001).
87. Houpikian P, Raoult D. Diagnostic methods current best practices and guidelines for identification of difficult-to-culture pathogens in infective endocarditis. Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am. 16, 377-392 (2002).
88. Oman K, Norton R, Gunawardane K. Bartonella henselae infective endocarditis in north Queensland. Intern. Med. J. 33, 55-56 (2003).
89. La Scola B, Raoult D. Culture of Bartonella quintana and Bartonella henselae from human samples: a 5-year experience (1993 to 1998). J. Clin. Microbiol. 37, 1899-1905 (1999).
90. Tang YW, Hopkins MK, Kolbert CP, Hartley PA, Severance PJ, Persing DH. Bordetella holmesii-like organisms associated with septicemia, endocarditis and respiratory failure. Clin. Infect. Dis. 26, 389-392 (1998).
91. Mert A, Kocak F, Ozaras R, Tabak F et al. The role of antibiotic treatment alone for the management of Brucella endocarditis in adults: a case report and literature review. Ann. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 8, 381-385 (2002).
92. Sasaki Y, Suehiro S, Shibata T, Minamimura H, Kumano H, Kinoshita H. A case of isolated tricuspid valve endocarditis caused by Campylobacter fetus. Nippon Kyobu Geka Gakkai Zasshi 45, 1844-1847 (1997).
93. Nikkari S, Gotoff R, Bourbeau PP, Brown RE, Kamal NR, Relman DA. Identification of Cardiobacterium hominis by broad-range bacterial polymerase chain reaction analysis in a case of culture-negative endocarditis. Arch. Intern. Med. 162, 477-479 (2002).
94. Lamas CC, Eykyn SJ. Blood culture negative endocarditis: analysis of 63 cases presenting over 25 years. Heart 89, 258-262 (2003).
95. Tellez I, Chrysant GS, Omer I, Dismukes WE. Citrobacter diversus endocarditis. Am. J. Med. Sci. 320, 408-410 (2000).
96. MacCulloch D, Menzies R, Cornere BM. Endocarditis due to Citrobacter diversus developing resistance to cephalothin. NZ Med. J. 85, 182-183 (1977).
97. Plantholt SJ, Trofa AF. Citrobacter freundii endocarditis in an intravenous drug abuser. South. Med. J. 80, 1439-1441 (1987).
98. Issartel B, Gauduchon V, Chalabreysse L et al. Clinically and histologically silent Q fever endocarditis accidentally diagnosed by PCR. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 8, 113-114 (2002).
99. Watkin RW, Baker N, Lang S, Ment J. Eikenella corrodens infective endocarditis in a previously healthy non-drug user. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 21, 890-891 (2002).
100. Morrison DJ, Sperling LS, Schwartz DA, Felner JM. Escherichia coli endocarditis of a native aortic valve. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 121, 1292-1295 (1997).
101. Oosterbosch L, Oei F, Rogiers P, Vaerenberg M, Ranquin R, Nagler J. Escherichia coli endocarditis of a native mitral valve with paravalvular pseudoaneurysm formation and fatal hemopericardium. Acta Cardiol. 51, 535-540 (1996).
102. Tancik CA, Dillaha JA. Francisella tularensis endocarditis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 30, 399-400 (2000).
103. Akhondi H, Rahimi AR. Haemophilus aphrophilus endocarditis after tongue piercing. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 8, 850-851 (2002).
104. Das I, DeGiovanni JV, Gray J. Endocarditis caused by Haemophilus parainfluenzae identified by 16S ribosomal RNA sequencing. J. Clin. Pathol. 50, 72-74 (1997).
105. Greene JN, Sandin RL, Villanueva L, Sinnott JT. Haemophilus parainfluenzae endocarditis in a patient with mitral valve prolapse. Ann. Clin. Lab. Sci. 23, 203-206 (1993).
106. Watkin RW, Lang S, Littler WA, Elliott TS. Haemophilus paraphrophilus prosthetic valve endocarditis. J. Infect. 46, 191-194 (2003).
107. Watanakunakorn C. Klebsiella oxytoca endocarditis after transurethral resection of the prostate gland. South. Med. J. 78, 356-357 (1985).
108. Thomas MG, Rowland-Jones S, Smyth E. Klebsiella pneumoniae endocarditis. J. R. Soc. Med. 82, 114-115 (1989).
109. Delahaye F, Hoen B, McFadden E, Roth O, de Gevigney G. Treatment and prevention of infective endocarditis. Expert Opin. Pharmacother. 3, 131-145 (2002).
110. Sanyal SK, Wilson N, Twum-Danso K, Abomelha A, Sohel S. Moraxella endocarditis following balloon angioplasty of aortic coarctation. Am. Heart J. 119, 1421-1423 (1990).
111. Hofstad T, Hope O, Falsen E. Septicaemia with Neisseria elongata ssp. nitroreducens in a patient with hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathia. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 30, 200-201 (1998).
112. Chao HC, Chiu CH, Huang YC, Lin TY, Su WJ. Endocarditis due to Neisseria sicca: report of one case. Zhonghua Min Guo Xiao Er Ke Yi Xue Hui Za Zhi 38, 229-231 (1997).
113. Amsel BJ, Moulijn AC. Nonfebrile mitral valve endocarditis due to Neisseria subflava. Chest 109, 280-282 (1996).
114. Benes J, Dzupova O, Krizova P, Rozsypal H. Tricuspid valve endocarditis due to Neisseria cinerea. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 22, 106-107 (2003).
115. Rosenbach KA, Poblete J, Larkin I. Prosthetic valve endocarditis caused by Pasteurella dagmatis. South Med. J. 94, 1033-1035 (2001).
116. al Fadel Saleh M, al-Madan MS, Erwa HH, Defonseka I, Sohel SZ, Sanyal SK. First case of human infection caused by Pasteurella gallinarum causing infective endocarditis in an adolescent 10 years after surgical correction for truncus arteriosus. Pediatrics 95, 944-948 (1995).
117. Hur K, Yoon BI, Yoo HS et al. Aortic valvular endocarditis associated with Pasteurella haemolytica in a tiger (Panthera tigris). Vet. Rec. 149, 490-491 (2001).
118. Fayad G, Modine T, Mokhtari S et al. Pasteurella multocida aortic valve endocarditis: case report and literature review. J. Heart Valve Dis. 12, 261-263 (2003).
119. Zedtwitz-Liebenstein K, Gabriel H, Graninger W. Pacemaker endocarditis due to Propionibacterium acnes. Infection 31, 184-185 (2003).
120. Mohsen AH, Price A, Ridgway E, West JN, Green S, McKendrick MW. Propionibacterium acnes endocarditis in a native valve complicated by intraventricular abscess: a case report and review. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 33, 379-380 (2001).
121. Bicanic TA, Eykyn SJ. Hospital-acquired, native valve endocarditis caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J. Infect. 44, 137-139 (2002).
122. Johansen HK, Kjeldsen K, Hoiby N. Pseudomonas mendocina as a cause of chronic infective endocarditis in a patient with situs inversus. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 7, 650-652 (2001).
123. Rodriguez E, Nonell F, Poblet T, Domenech M, Aleixandre H, Bastida T. Aortic endocarditis caused by Salmonella sp. in an HIV infected woman. An. Med. Interna. 19, 656-657 (2002).
124. Miyamoto MI, Hutter AM Jr, Blum JH, Torchiana DF. Cardiac conduction abnormalities preceding transoesophageal echocardiographic evidence of perivalvar extension of infection in a case of Salmonella prosthetic valve endocarditis. Heart 78, 416-418 (1997).
125. Korner RJ, Nicol A, Reeves DS, MacGowan AP, Hows J. Ciprofloxacin resistant Serratia marcescens endocarditis as a complication of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. J. Infect. 29, 73-76 (1994).
126. Mehta NJ, Khan IA, Mehta RN, Gulati A. Stenotrophomonas maltophilia endocarditis of prosthetic aortic valve: report of a case and review of literature. Heart Lung 29, 351-355 (2000).
127. Rupp ME. Streptobacillus moniliformis endocarditis: case report and review. Clin. Infect. Dis. 14, 769-772 (1992).
128. Karachalios G, Bablekos G, Karachaliou G, Charalabopoulos AK, Charalabopoulos K. Infectious endocarditis due to Yersinia enterocolitica. Chemotherapy 48, 158-159 (2002).
129. Maurin M, Eb F, Etienne J, Raoult D. Serological cross-reactions between Bartonella and Chlamydia species: implications for diagnosis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 35, 2283-2287 (1997).
130. Landymore RW, Murphy DA, Marrie TJ, Johnston BL. Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare endocarditis causing rupture: replacement and repair with aortic homograft. Can. J. Cardiol. 8, 729-732 (1992).
131. Olalla J, Pombo M, Aguado JM et al. Mycobacterium fortuitum complex endocarditis - case report and literature review. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 8, 125-129 (2002).
132. Lohr DC, Goeken JA, Doty DB, Donta ST. Mycobacterium gordonae infection of a prosthetic aortic valve. JAMA 239, 1528-1530 (1978).
133. Blasco M, Torres L, Marco ML, Moles B, Villuendas MC, Garcia Moya JB. Prosthetic valve endocarditis caused by Mycoplasma hominis. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 19, 638-640 (2000).
134. Watson A, French P, Wilson M. Nocardia asteroides native valve endocarditis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 32, 660-661 (2001).
135. Ertl G, Schaal KP, Kochsiek K. Nocardial endocarditis of an aortic valve prosthesis. Br. Heart J. 57, 384-386 (1987).
136. Braunwald E. Heart disease. A textbook of cardiovascular medicine, 5th Edition. WB Saunders Co, PA, USA (1997).