Science, suffrage, and experimentation: Mary Putnam Jacobi and the controversy over vivisection in late nineteenth-century America

Bulletin of the History of Medicine

Volumn 79, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 664-694

  Bittel, Carla ^a  

^a LOYOLA MARYMOUNT UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Jacobi; Mary Putnam; Scientific medicine; Suffrage; Vivisection; Women physicians; Women's rights movements

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL; ANIMAL RIGHTS; FEMALE; HISTORY; HUMAN; HUMAN EXPERIMENT; POLICY; POLITICS; PUBLIC OPINION; REVIEW; VIVISECTION; WOMEN'S RIGHTS;

ANIMAL RIGHTS; ANIMALS; FEMALE; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMAN EXPERIMENTATION; HUMANS; POLITICS; PUBLIC OPINION; PUBLIC POLICY; VIVISECTION; WOMEN'S RIGHTS;

EID: 30344472132     PISSN: 00075140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/bhm.2005.0138     Document Type: Review

References (190)

1. On the history of vivisection, see Anita Guerrini, Experimenting with Humans and Animals: From Galen to Animal Rights (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003);
2. Susan E. Lederer, Subjected to Science: Human Experimentation in America before the Second World War (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995);
3. Nicolaas A. Rupke, ed., Vivisection in Historical Perspective (London: Groom Helm, 1987).
4. Mary Putnam Jacobi, "The Practical Study of Biology" (Remarks addressed to the Massachusetts Medical Society at its Annual Dinner, 12 June 1889), in Mary Putnam Jacobi: A Pathfinder in Medicine (hereafter Pathfinder), ed. Women's Medical Association of New York City (New York: Putnam, 1925), pp. 458-62.
5. For more on Jacobi, see Carla Bittel, "The Science of Women's Rights: The Medical and Political Worlds of Mary Putnam Jacobi" (Ph.D. diss., Cornell University, 2003);
6. Joy Harvey, "Clanging Eagles: The Marriage and Collaboration between Two Nineteenth-Century Physicians, Mary Putnam Jacobi and Abraham Jacobi," in Creative Couples in the Sciences, ed. Helena M. Pycior, Nancy G. Slack, and Pnina G. Abir-Am (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996), pp. 185-95;
7. Regina Markeil Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), pp. 184-202;
8. Susan Wells, Out of the Dead House: Nineteenth-Century Women Physicians and the Writing of Medicine (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2001), pp. 146-92.
9. Gerald Geison, "Divided We Stand: Physiologists and Clinicians in the American Context," in The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine, ed. Morris J. Vogel and Charles E. Rosenberg (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), pp. 67-90;
10. John Harley Warner, "The Fall and Rise of Professional Mystery: Epistemology, Authority, and the Emergence of Laboratory Medicine in Nineteenth-Century America," in The Laboratory Revolution in Medicine, ed. Andrew Cunningham and Perry Williams (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992);
11. Warner, "Ideals of Science and Their Discontents in Late Nineteenth-Century American Medicine," Isis, 1991, 82:454-78;
12. Warner, Against the Spirit of System: The French Impulse in Nineteenth-Century American Medicine (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998).
13. For examples of other women who embraced scientific models, see Regina Morantz-Sanchez, Conduct Unbecoming a Woman: Medicine on Trial in Turn-of-the-Century Brooklyn (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999);
14. Arleen M. Tuchman, "'Only in a Republic Can It Be Proved That Science Has No Sex': Marie Elizabeth Zakrzewska (1829-1902) and the Multiple Meanings of Science in the Nineteenth-Century United States," J. Women's Hist., 1999, 11: 121-42;
15. Tuchman, "Situating Gender: Marie E. Zakrzewska and the Place of Science in Women's Medical Education," Isis, 2004, 95:34-57.
16. On the "representative types" of female physicians, see Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science (n. 2), pp. 184-202.
17. See also Regina Morantz-Sanchez, "Feminism, Professionalism, and Germs: The Thought of Mary Putnam Jacobi and Elizabeth Blackwell," Amer. Quart., 1982, 34:459-78.
18. For other examples of women physicians who problematized the "sympathetic" model, see Morantz-Sanchez, Conduct Unbecoming a Woman (n. 4);
19. Tuchman, "'Only in a Republic'" (n. 4).
20. Several women physicians tried to create a balance between the duality of sympathetic and scientific medicine. See Ellen More, Restoring the Balance: Women Physicians and the Profession of Medicine, 1850-1995 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999), pp. 1-12;
21. Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science (n. 2), pp. 5-7.
22. Statistics quoted in Thomas Neville Bonner, To the Ends of the Earth: Women's Search for Education in Medicine (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992), p. 157.
23. See also Sophia Jex Blake, Medical Women: A Thesis and a History (Edinburgh: Oliphant, Anderson, and Ferrier, 1886), pp. 246-47;
24. Caroline Schultze, Die Ärztin im XIX. Jahrhundert (Leipzig: Hobbing, 1889), p. 54.
25. On the history of women and homeopathy, see Anne Taylor Kirschmann, A Vital Force: Women in American Homeopathy (New Brunswick, NJ.: Rutgers University Press, 2003);
26. Naomi Rogers, An Alternative Path: The Making and Remaking of Hahnemann Medical College and Hospital of Philadelphia (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1998).
27. For another interpretation of Mary Putnam Jacobi's work, see Wells, Out of the Dead House (n. 2), pp. 146-92. Wells analyzes the importance of gender and scientific discourses in the writings of women physicians. In her chapter on Jacobi, she argues that Jacobi engaged in gender performance, alternating between masculine and feminine styles of writing and representation.
28. Scholars have explored how gender and science are specific to a number of social variables, also referred to as the "situatedness" of gender. See Judith Walzer Leavitt, "'A Worrying Profession': The Domestic Environment of Medical Practice in Nineteenth-Century America," Bull. Hist. Med., 1995, 69:1-29;
29. Morantz-Sanchez, Conduct Unbecoming a Woman (n. 4);
30. Tuchman, "Situating Gender" (n. 4), pp. 36-39.
31. See also Sally Gregory Kohlstedt and Helen Longino, eds., Women, Gender, and Science: New Directions, Osiris, 1997, 2nd ser., 12;
32. this volume includes an essay by Evelyn Fox Keller on the biologist Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard, which speaks to these issues: see Evelyn Fox Keller, "Developmental Biology as Feminist Cause?" pp. 16-28.
33. See also Sandra Harding, "Rethinking Standpoint Epistemology: What Is 'Strong Objectivity?'" in Feminism and Science, ed. Evelyn Fox Keller and Helen E. Longino (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 235-48.
34. Key sources on the early life of Mary Putnam Jacobi include Ruth Putnam, Life and Letters of Mary Putnam Jacobi (New York: Putnam, 1925);
35. Pathfinder (n. 2).
36. For other scholarly treatments of (Putnam) Jacobi in Paris, see Bonner, To the Ends of the Earth (n. 8), pp. 48-54;
37. Joy Harvey, "'Faithful to Its Old Traditions'? Paris Clinical Medicine from the Second Empire to the Third Republic (1848-1872)," in Constructing Paris Medicine, ed. Caroline Hannaway and Ann La Berge, Clio Med., 1998, 50:313-35;
38. Joy Harvey, "La Visite: Mary Putnam Jacobi and the Paris Medical Clinics," Clio Med., 1994, 25:350-71;
39. Joy Harvey, "Medicine and Politics: Dr. Mary Putnam Jacobi and the Paris Commune," Dialec. Anthropol., 1990, 15:107-17;
40. Warner, Against the Spirit of System (n. 3), pp. 322-27.
41. Mary C. Putnam to Victorine Haven Putnam, 29 May 1867, in Putnam, Life and Letters (n. 11), pp. 102-3.
42. See Mary C. Putnam, "De la graisse neutre et des acides gras" (med. thesis, École de Médecine, 1871). From Paris, Jacobi wrote a series of articles for the Medical Record. She also wrote fiction, including "A Martyr to Science," which described a mad scientist who wanted to perform a human vivisection on himself:
43. Mary Putnam Jacobi, "A Martyr to Science," in Jacobi, Stories and Sketches (New York: Putnam, 1907), pp. 212-61
44. (first published in Putnam's Monthly, August 1869).
45. For more on Jacobi's science, see Bittel, "Science of Women's Rights" (n. 2), chaps. 3 and 4;
46. Wells, Out of the Dead House (n. 2), pp. 166-88.
47. On the Woman's Medical College of the New York Infirmary, see Ruth J. Abram, ed., "Send Us a Lady Physician": Women Doctors in America, 1835-1920 (New York: Norton, 1985).
48. On the Réclus, see Gary S. Dunbar, Elisée Réclus: Historian of Nature (Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1978);
49. Marie Fleming, The Anarchist Way to Socialism: Elisée Réclus and Nineteenth-Century European Anarchism (London: Croom Helm, 1979);
50. Joseph Ishill, ed., Elisée and Elie Réclus: In Memoriam (Berkeley Heights, N.J.: Oriole Press, 1927).
51. See Warner, "Ideals of Science" (n. 3),
52. and Against the Spirit of System (n. 3), pp. 330-64;
53. Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science (n. 2), pp. 232-40.
54. See Margaret Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982). On the association of science and masculinity in Western culture,
55. see Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985);
56. Sandra Harding, The Science Question in Feminism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986);
57. David F. Noble, A World without Women: The Christian Clerical Culture of Western Science (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993);
58. Londa L. Schiebinger, The Mind Has No Sex? Women in the Origins of Modern Science (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989).
59. Mary Putnam Jacobi, "On Atropine," in Pathfinder (n. 2), pp. 204-39, quotation at p. 222 n. 3.
60. This article was originally published in two parts as Mary C. Putnam, "On Atropine: A Lecture Delivered at the Woman's Medical College of the New York Infirmary," Med. Rec., 1873, 5:249-54, 273-78.
61. Mary Putnam jacobi, "Action of Nitrate of Silver," in Pathfinder (n. 2), pp. 291-94.
62. Welk, Out of the Dead House (n. 2), pp. 193-226.
63. Mary C. Putnaro, "Phenomena Attending Section of the Right Restiform Body," Med. Rec., 1873, 8: 17-18. In this study, (Putnam) Jacobi also examined the relationship between nervous dysfunction and nutritional failure.
64. For Abraham Jacobi's short contribution to this discussion, see Mary C. Putnaro, "Phenomena Attending Section of the Right Restiform Body," Med. Rec., 1873, 8: ibid., p. 18.
65. Jacobi, "Practical Study of Biology" (n. 2), p. 462.
66. On the lack of regulation, see Lederer, Subjected to Science (n. 1), pp. 1-26.
67. For example, see Mary Putnam Jacobi, The Question of Rest for Women during Menstruation (New York: Putnam, 1877).
68. On the sphygmograph, see Robert Frank, "The Telltale Heart: Physiological Instruments, Graphic Methods, and Clinical Hopes, 1854-1914," in The Investigative Enterprise: Experimental Physiology in Nineteenth-Century Medicine, ed. William Coleman and Frederic L. Holmes (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), pp. 211-90.
69. Mary Putnam jacobi, "Sphygmographic Experiments upon a Human Brain, Exposed by an Opening in the Cranium," in Pathfinder (n. 2), pp. 299-310, quotation on p. 299.
70. Mary Putnam Jacobi, "Provisional Report on the Effect of Quinine upon the Cerebral Circulation," Arch. Med., 1879, 1: 33-43, see especially p. 33.
71. See "Mary Putnam Jacobi's Letter of Protest," intro. and transcription by Nancy Cervetti, Trans. & Stud. Coll. Physicians Philadelphia, 1997, 19:110-14.
72. Jacobi, "Practical Study of Biology" (n. 2), p. 459.
73. Jacobi, "Practical Study of Biology" (n. 2)Ibid., p. 461.
74. Jacobi, "Practical Study of Biology" (n. 2)Ibid., p. 459. On the British Anti-Vivisection Movement and the 1876 legislation limiting the practice,
75. see Richard D. French, Antivivisection and Medical Science in Victorian Society (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), pp. 112-76.
76. Jacobi, "Practical Study of Biology" (n. 2), p. 459.
77. Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science (n. 2), p. 70.
78. Historians who have described the state of American medical education at mid-century include Kenneth M. Ludmerer, Learning to Heal: The Development of American Medical Education (New York: Basic Books, 1985);
79. Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science (n. 2), pp. 68-70;
80. William G. Rothstein, American Medical Schools and the Practice of Medicine: A History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), pp. 89-115.
81. Jacobi, "On Atropine" (n. 20), p. 205.
82. Mary Putnam Jacobi, "The School of Medicine for Women of the New York Infirmary" (Paper read at Laurel House, Lakewood, N.J., 3 March 1884), pp. 12-13, Library of the New York Academy of Medicine, New York, N.Y.
83. Mary Putnam Jacobi, "The School of Medicine for Women of the New York Infirmary" 1884 Ibid., p. 12.
84. Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science (n. 2), pp. 72-75.
85. Jacobi, "School of Medicine for Women" (n. 39), p. 25.
86. For a discussion of this, see Jacobi, Question of Rest (n. 27).
87. Mary Putnam Jacobi, "Letter from Dr. Mary Putnam Jacobi: Plato for Woman Suffrage," Woman's J., 7 February 1885, p. 44.
88. Mary Putnam Jacobi to Elizabeth Blackwell, 25 December 1888, Blackwell Family Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
89. Jacobi, "Plato for Woman Suffrage" (n. 44), p. 44.
90. Jacobi, "Practical Study of Biology" (n. 2), p. 461.
91. See Vivian Zelizer, Pricing the Priceless Child: The Changing Social Value of Children (New York: Basic Books, 1985);
92. Gary Cross, The Cute and the Cool: Wondrous Innocence and Modern American Children's Culture (NewYork: Oxford University Press, 2004).
93. On Victorian views of animals, see James Turner, Reckoning with the Beast: Animals, Pain, and Humanity in the Victorian Mind (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980).
94. Lederer, Subjected to Science (n. 1), p. 28.
95. For discussions on the history of pain, see Martin S. Pernick, A Calculus of Suffering: Pain, Professionalism, and Anesthesia in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985);
96. Turner, Reckoning with the Beast (n. 49). On views about pain in antebellum America,
97. see Karen Halttunen, "Humanitarianism and the Pornography of Pain in Anglo-American Culture," Amer. Hist. Rev., 1995, 100:303-34.
98. For more on Leffingwell, see Thomas A. Woolsey and Robert E. Burke, "The Playwright, the Practitioner, the Politician, the President, and the Pathologist: A Guide to the 1900 Senate Document Tided 'Vivisection,'" Perspect. Biol. & Med., 1987, 30: 235-58;
99. Albert Leffingwell, "Does Vivisection Pay?" Scribner's Monthly, 1880: 20: 391-99;
100. Albert Leffingwell, "On Vivisection in America," in Henry S. Salt, Animals' Rights, Considered in Relation to Social Progress (New York: Macmillan, 1894), pp. 133-68.
101. Leffingwell, "Does Vivisection Pay?" (n. 52), p. 395 (emphasis in the original).
102. Leffingwell, "Does Vivisection Pay?" (n. 52)Ibid., pp. 391, 392.
103. See Lederer, Subjected to Science (n. 1), p. 54;
104. Anti-Vivisection (journal produced by the Illinois Anti-Vivisection Society, Aurora, Ill.), 1895, 2:13;
105. Vivisection: Hearing before the Senate Committee of the District of Columbia, February 21, 1900, on the Bill S. 34, For the Further Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in the District of Columbia (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1900), p. 57, hereafter Vivisection (1900).
106. Matthew C. Woods, see Anti-Vivisection, 1895, 2:13;
107. see also Vivisection (1900) (n. 55), pp. 12-16. For another example,
108. see Edward Berdoe, "Does Vivisection Help?" Century, 1890, 40:956-58.
109. See Wilfred Risdon, Robert Lawson Tail (London: National Anti-Vivisection Society, 1967).
110. Letter from Rev. John C. Kimball, "Voices from the Church upon the Subject of Vivisection," Anti-Vivisection, 1897, 9: 63-64. For more men opposed to vivisection,
111. see Philip G. Peabody, Personal Experiences of Two American Anti-Vivisectionists in Various Countries (Boston: New England Anti-Vivisection Society, 1895);
112. Salt, Animals' Rights (n. 52).
113. On the gendering of the antivivisection movement, see Susan E. Lederer, "Moral Sensibility and Medical Science: Gender, Animal Experimentation, and the Doctor-Patient Relationship," in The Empathic Practitioner: Empathy, Gender, and Medicine, ed. Ellen Singer More and Maureen A. Milligan (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1994), pp. 59-73.
114. Craig Buettinger, "Women and Antivivisection in Late Nineteenth-Century America," J. Soc. Hist., 1997, 30: 857-72;
115. Lederer, Subjected to Science (n. 1), pp. 27, 29, 36, 39. It was common for WCTU women to unite temperance with other strands of social reform:
116. see Ruth Bordin, Woman and Temperance: The Quest for Power and Liberty (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1990), pp. 98, 109. For the WCTU's work in Wyoming against the juvenile death penalty and in favor of woman suffrage,
117. see Joan Jacobs Brumberg, Kansas Charley: The Story of a Nineteenth-Century Boy Murderer (New York: Viking Press, 2003), pp. 166-71.
118. On British activism, see Moira Ferguson, Animal Advocacy and Englishwomen, 1780-1900 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998);
119. Mary Ann Elston, "Women and Anti-Vivisection in Victorian England, 1870-1900," in Vivisection in Historical Perspective, ed. Nicolaas A. Rupke (London: Groom Helm, 1987), pp. 259-94 (on pp. 281-86 Elston describes how vivisection also produced conflict within British feminist organizations that were torn between supporting women doctors and opposing animal experimentation).
120. See Anti-Vivisection, 1893-97;
121. some issues are housed in the Blackwell Family Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., MC 411, box 15, folders 214-16.
122. Anti-Vivisection, 1894, 2 (1): frontispiece;
123. Anti-Vivisection, 1894, 2 (4): frontispiece.
124. Anti-Vivisection, 1894, 2 (4): 10.
125. Alice Stone Blackwell, "An Abominable Practice," Woman's J., 22 October 1892, p. 340.
126. Alice Stone Blackwell, "An Abominable Practice," Woman's J., 1892, p. 340.Ibid.
127. Elizabeth Blackwell, "Erroneous Method in Medical Education," in Essays in Medical Sociology, vol. 2 (New York: Arno Press, reprint 1972), pp. 35-45, quotation on p. 43 (this was originally an address to the Alumnae Association of the Woman's Medical College of the New York Infirmary, 1891).
128. Elizabeth Blackwell quoted in Abraham Jacobi, "Introductory Remarks by the Chairman," in Women's Medical Association of New York City, In Memory of Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell and Emily Blackwell (New York: New York Academy of Medicine, 1911), pp. 67-82, on p. 77.
129. "Introductory Remarks by the Chairman,", In Memory of Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell and Emily Blackwell, 1911 Ibid., pp. 77-78.
130. Elizabeth Blackwell to Emily Blackwell, 18 January 1875, Blackwell Family Papers (n. 62), box 3, folder 47.
131. Blackwell, "Erroneous Method" (n. 67), p. 43.
132. See also Lederer, Subjected to Science (n. 1), pp. 37-38.
133. Blackwell, "Erroneous Method" (n. 67), pp. 37, 41.
134. Blackwell, "Erroneous Method" (n. 67),Ibid., p. 45.
135. Blackwell, "Erroneous Method" (n. 67),Ibid., p. 43 (emphasis added). On Jacobi and Blackwell's disagreement about vivisection,
136. see Jacobi to Blackwell, 25 December 1888 (n. 45).
137. See also Regina Morantz-Sanchez, "Feminist Theory and Historical Practice: Rereading Elizabeth Blackwell," Hist. & Theory, 1992, 31:51-69.
138. Woman's Medical College of the New York Infirmary, Sixteenth Annual Catalogue and Announcement, June 1884 (NewYork: Putnam, 1884), pp. 8, 10;
139. Woman's Medical College of the New York Infirmary, Nineteenth Annual Catalogue and Announcement, June 1887 (New York: Knickerbocker Press, 1887), p. 7.
140. John C. Kimball, "Woman's Medical College and Vivisection," Woman's J., 15 May 1897, p. 153.
141. John C. Kimball, "Woman's Medical College and Vivisection," Woman's J., 1897, p. 153.Ibid.
142. On the suffrage revival and the shift to expediency in the movement, see Eileen Kraditor, Ideas of the Woman Suffrage Movement, 1890-1920 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965).
143. See also Ellen Carol DuBois, "Working Women, Class Relations, and Suffrage Militance: Harriot Stanton Blatch and the New York Woman Suffrage Movement, 1894-1909," J. Amer. Hist., 1987, 74: 34-58;
144. Sara Hunter Graham, "The Suffrage Renaissance: A New Image for a New Century, 1896-1910," in One Woman, One Vote, ed. Marjorie Spruill Wheeler (Troutdale, Ore.: NewSage Press, 1995), pp. 157-78.
145. On Jacobi's suffrage activism, see Mary Putnam Jacobi, "Common Sense" Applied to Woman Suffrage (New York: Putnam, 1894);
146. New York Woman Suffrage Association, Record of the Campaign: Woman Suffrage and the Constitutional Convention, 1894 (Rochester, N.Y.: Mann, 1895).
147. Mary Putnam Jacobi, "Two Representative Women," Woman's J., 23 December 1893, pp. 406-7,
148. and 30 December 1893, p. 410; quotations on pp. 406 and 410.
149. Mary Putnam Jacobi, "The Woman Suffrage Question: The Present Demand," The Outlook, 12 May 1894, p. 820;
150. Jacobi, "Address on Behalf of the Women of the City of New York," in "Common Sense" (n. 79), p. 213.
151. Jacobi, "Two Representative Women" (n. 80), p. 410.
152. Jacobi, "Common Sense" (n. 79), p. 190.
153. For more on Jacobi's positivism, see Mary Putnam Jacobi, The Value of Life: A Reply to Mattock's Essay, "Is Life Worth Living?" (New York: Putnam, 1879).
154. Jacobi to Blackwell, 25 December 1888 (n. 45).
155. Emily Blackwell, "Woman's Medical College Justified," Woman's J., 22 May 1897, p. 161.
156. Mary Putnam Jacobi to Richard W. Gilder, c. 26 January 1890, Century Company Records, Manuscript and Archives Division, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations, New York Public Library, New York, N.Y.
157. Mary Putnam Jacobi, "Does Vivisection Help?" Century, 1891, 42: 157-58. On the controversy over gynecological surgery,
158. see Morantz-Sanchez, Conduct Unbecoming a Woman (n. 4).
159. On Jacobi's testimony, see Vivisection (1900) (n. 55), pp. 58-61. On the Senate hearing,
160. see Woolsey and Burke, "Playwright" (n. 52);
161. Patricia Peck Gossel, "William Henry Welch and the Antivivisection Legislation in the District of Columbia, 1896-1900," J. Hist. Med. & Allied Sci., 1985, 40:397-419.
162. Gossel, "William Henry Welch" (n. 89), p. 418.
163. For more on the defense of vivisection by medical men, see "Vivisection": A Statement on Behalf of Science, February 1896, pamphlet, Library of the New York Academy of Medicine.
164. Vivisection (1900) (n. 55), p. 58.
165. Vivisection (1900) (n. 55), p. 58.Ibid.
166. Vivisection (1900) (n. 55),Ibid., p. 60.
167. Woolsey and Burke, "Playwright" (n. 52), p. 247.
168. William Welch quoted in Lederer, Subjected to Science (n. 1), p. 58.
169. "Additional Statement of Matthew Woods, of Philadelphia," in Vivisection (1900) (n. 55), p. 169: Woods, president of the Pennsylvania Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, quotes Shakespeare on vivisection, claiming that he "was among the first of moderns who condemned it, because of its effect in 'hardening human hearts.'" For background on Woods,
170. see Woolsey and Burke, "Playwright" (n. 52), p. 243.
171. Vivisection (1900) (n. 55), p. 217.
172. Vivisection (1900) (n. 55), p. 217.Ibid.
173. Vivisection (1900) (n. 55), p. 217.Ibid.
174. Vivisection (1900) (n. 55),Ibid., p. 60.
175. William James Robinson, "The Malice and Vindictiveness of the Antivivisectionists," Med. Rec., 1897, 51: 791,
176. quoted in Buettinger, "Women and Antivivisection" (n. 60), pp. 867-68.
177. Vivisection (1900) (n. 55), p. 60.
178. See Guerrini, Experimenting with Humans and Animals (n. 1);
179. Lederer, Subjected to Science (n. 1).
180. On the problems faced by women in medicine in the early twentieth century, see Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science (n. 2), pp. 232-65;
181. More, Restoring the Balance (n. 7), pp. 95-121;
182. Mary Roth Walsh, Doctors Wanted: No Women Need Apply (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977), pp. 178-267.
183. For literature focused on science and the subordination of women, see Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, For Her Own Good: 150 Years of Experts' Advice to Women (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Press, 1978);
184. Cynthia Eagle Russett, Sexual Science: The Victorian Construction of Womanhood (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989);
185. Carroll Smith-Rosenberg and Charles Rosenberg, "The Female Animal: Medical and Biological Views of Woman and Her Role in Nineteenth-Century America," in Women and Health in America, ed. Judith Walzer Leavitt (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984), pp. 12-27. For alternative approaches that examine women who actively incorporated different types of scientific practices and rhetoric into medicine,
186. see Morantz-Sanchez, Conduct Unbecoming a Woman (n. 4);
187. Tuchman, "'Only in A Republic'" (n. 4),
188. and "Situating Gender" (n. 4);
189. Wells, Out of the Dead House (n. 2).
190. For another example of women "border crossers" in science, see Scott F. Gilbert and Karen A Rader, "Revisiting Women, Gender, and Feminism in Developmental Biology," in Feminism in Twentieth-Century Science, Technology, and Medicine, ed. Angela N. H. Creager, Elizabeth Lunbeck, and Londa Schiebinger (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), pp. 73-97.