Critical literature review of the evidence for unpalatability of amphibian eggs and larvae

Journal of Herpetology

Volumn 39, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 547-571

  Gunzburger, Margaret S ^a,b   Travis, Joseph ^a  

^a FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b U S GEOLOGICAL SURVEY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMPHIBIA; ANURA; BUFO; INSECTA;

EID: 30344440786     PISSN: 00221511     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1670/1-05A.1     Document Type: Review

References (158)

1. ANHOLT, B. R., SKELLY, D. K., AND E. E. WERNER. 1996. Factors modifying antipredator behavior in larval toads. Herpetologica 52:301-313.
2. ARESCO, M. J., AND R. N. REED. 1998. Rana capito sevosa (Dusky Gopher Frog) predation. Herpetological Review 29:40.
3. ARNOLD, S. J., AND R. J. WASSERSUG. 1978. Differential predation on metamorphic anurans by garter snakes (Thamnophis): social behavior as a possible defense. Ecology 59:1014-1022.
4. BABBITT, K. J. 1995. Bufo terrestris (Southern Toad) oophagy. Herpetological Review 26:30.
5. BABBITT, K. J., AND G. W. TANNER. 1997. Effects of cover and predator identity on predation of Hyla squirella tadpoles. Journal of Herpetology 31:128-130.
6. BALDWIN, K. S., AND R. A. STANFORD. 1987. Ambystoma tigrinum californiense (California Tiger Salamander) predation. Herpetological Review 18:33.
7. BANKS, B., AND T. J. C. BEEBEE. 1987. Spawn predation and larval growth inhibition as mechanisms for niche separation in anurans. Oecologia 72:569-573.
8. BEARD, K. H., AND J. BAILLIE. 1998. Rana catesbeiana (Bullfrog) diet. Herpetological Review 29:40.
9. BEISWENGER, R. E. 1981. Predation by gray jays on aggregating tadpoles of the boreal toad (Bufo boreas). Copeia 1981:459-460.
10. BELL, G., AND J. H. LAWTON. 1975. The ecology of the eggs and larvae of the smooth newt (Triturus vulgaris (Linn.)). Journal of Animal Ecology 44:393-423.
11. BERNARDE, P. S., AND R. A. MACHADO. 1999. Hyla faber (Smith Frog) larval cannibalism. Herpetological Review 30:162.
12. BLEAKNEY, S. 1958. Cannibalism in Rana sylvatica tadpoles, a well-known phenomenon. Herpetologica 14:34.
13. BLECKMANN, H., AND T. LOTZ. 1987. The vertebrate-catching behaviour of the fishing spider Dolomedes triton (Aranae, Pisauridae). Animal Behaviour 35:641-651.
14. BLOUIN, M. S. 1990. Evolution of palatability differences between closely-related treefrogs. Journal of Herpetology 24:309-311.
15. BOLITHO, E. E., AND R. W. R. RETALLICK. 1996. Mixophyes fasciolatus (Great Barred Frog) tadpole predation. Herpetological Review 27:140-141.
16. BRADFORD, D. F. 1991. Mass mortality and extinction in a high-elevation population of Rana muscosa. Journal of Herpetology 25:174-177.
17. BRAGG, A. N. 1940. Observations on the natural histoy of Anura I. Habits, habitat, and breeding of Bufo cognatus Say. American Naturalist 74:322-340, 424-438.
18. BRAGG, A. N., AND J. NELSON. 1966. Further notes on predation by tadpoles of the plains spadefoot. Proceedings of the Oklahoma Academy of Science 46:25-26.
19. BROCKELMAN, W. Y. 1969. An analysis of density effects and predation in Bufo americanus tadpoles. Ecology 50:32-644.
20. BRODIE JR., E. D., AND D. R. FORMANOWICZ JR. 1981. Larvae of the predaceous diving beetle Dytiscus verticalis acquire an avoidance response to skin secretions of the newt Notophthalmus viridescens. Herpetologica 37:172-176.
21. _. 1983. Prey size preference of predators: differential vulnerability of larval anurans. Herpetologica 39:67-75.
22. _. 1987. Antipredator mechanisms of larval anurans: protection of palatable individuals. Herpetologica 43:369-373.
23. BRODIE JR., E. D., D. R. FORMANOWICZ JR., AND E. D. BRODIE III. 1978. The development of noxiousness of Bufo americanus tadpoles to aquatic insect predators. Herpetologica 34:302-306.
24. CALDWELL, J. P., J. H. THORP, AND T. O. JERVEY. 1980. Predator-prey relationships among larval dragonflies, salamanders, and frogs. Oecologia 46:285-289.
25. CALEF, G. W. 1973. Natural mortality of tadpoles in a population of Rana aurora. Ecology 54:741-758.
26. CARGO, D. G. 1960. Predation of eggs of the Spotted Salamander Ambystoma maculatum by the leech Macrobdella decora. Chesapeake Science 1:119-120.
27. CASTANHO, L. M. 1996. Phyllomedusa distincta (Leaf-Frog) predation. Herpetological Review 27:141.
28. CHRISTMAN, S. P. 1973. Feeding ecology of the Striped Newt, Notophthalmus perstriatus. Journal of Herpetology 7:133-135.
29. COLLINS, J. P., AND J. E. CHEEK. 1983. Effect of food and density on development of typical and cannibalistic salamander larvae in Ambystoma tigrinum nebulosum. American Zoologist 23:77-84.
30. COOKE, A. S. 1974. Differential predation by newts on anuran tadpoles. British Journal of Herpetology 5:386-390.
31. CORY, L., AND J. L. MANION. 1953. Predation on eggs of the woodfrog, Rana sylvatica, by leeches. Copeia 1953:66.
32. CRONIN, J. T., AND J. TRAVIS. 1986. Size-limited predation on larval Rana areolata (Anura: Ranidae) by two species of backswimmer (Insecta: Heteropteran: Notonectidae). Herpetologica 42:171-174.
33. CROSSLAND, M. R. 1998. Predation by tadpoles on toxic toad eggs: the effect of tadpole size on predation success and tadpole survival. Journal of Herpetology 32:443-446.
34. CRUMP, M. L. 1983. Opportunisitc cannibalism by amphibian larvae in temporary aquatic environments. American Naturalist 121:281-289.
35. _. 1984. Ontogenetic changes in vulnerability to predation in tadpoles of Hyla pseudopuma. Herpetologica 40:265-271.
36. CRUMP, M L. 1986. Cannabalism by younger tadpoles: another hazard of metamorphosis. Copeia 1986: 1007-1009.
37. CRUMP, M. L., AND M. VAIRA. 1991. Vulnerability of Pleurodema borelli tadpoles to an avain predator: effect of body size and density. Herpetologica 47:316-321.
38. DENTON, J., AND T. J. C. BEEBEE. 1991. Palatability of anuran eggs and embryos. Amphibia-Reptilia 12:111-112.
39. DE VITO, J., D. P. CHIVERS, J. M. KIESECKER, L. K. BELDEN, AND A. R. BLAUSTEIN. 1999. Effects of snake predation on aggregation and metamorphosis of Pacfic Tree-frog (Hyla regilla) larvae. Journal of Herpetology 33:504-507.
40. DUELLMAN, W. E., AND L. TRUEB. 1994. Biology of Amphibians. Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, Baltimore, MD.
41. DUNCAN, R. B. 1999. Ambystoma tigrinum stebbinsi (Sonoran Tiger Salamander) predation. Herpetological Review 30:159.
42. DUNN, E. R. 1937. The amphibian and reptilian fauna of bromeliads in Costa Rica and Panama. Copeia 1937:163-167.
43. EATON, B. R., AND C. A. PASZKOWSKI. 1999. Rana sylvatica (Wood Frog) predation. Herpetological Review 30:164.
44. EYCLESHYMER, A. C. 1906. The habits of Necturus maculosus. American Naturalist 40:123-136.
45. FITCH, H. S. 1936. Amphibians and reptiles of the Rogue River Basin, Oregon. American Midland Naturalist 17:634-652.
46. FORMANOWICZ JR., D. R. 1986. Anuran tadpole/aquatic insect predator-prey interactions: tadpoles size and predator capture success. Herpetologica 42:367-373.
47. FORMANOWICZ JR., D. R., AND E. D. BRODIE JR. 1982. Relative palatibilities of members of a larval amphibian comunity. Copeia 1982:91-97.
48. FOX, W. 1952. Notes on feeding habits of Pacific Coast Garter snakes. Herpetologica 8:4-8.
49. GAMRADT, S. C., AND L. B. KATS. 1996. Effect of introduced crayfish and mosquitofish on California Newts. Conservation Biology 10:1155-1162.
50. GARCIA, C. H., AND H. DRUMMOND. 1988. Seasonal and ontogenetic variation in the diet of the Mexican Garter Snake Thamnophis eques, in Lake Tecomulco, Hidalgo. Journal of Herpetology 22:129-134.
51. GRUBB, J. C. 1972. Differential predation by Gambusia affinis on the eggs of seven species of anuran amphibians. American Midland Naturalist 88:102-108.
52. HAMILTON, R. 1948. The egg-laying process in the Tiger Salamander. Copeia 1948:212-213.
53. HAMILTON JR., W. J. 1932. The food and feeding habits of some eastern salamanders. Copeia 1932:83-86.
54. HANSON, K., J. SNYDER, AND L. KATS. 1994. Taricha torosa (California Newt) diet. Herpetological Review 25:62.
55. HARESTEAD, A. S. 1985. Scaphiopus intermontanus (Great Basin Spadefoot Toad) mortality. Herpetological Review 16:24.
56. HENRIKSON, B. I. 1990. Predation on amphibian eggs and tadpoles by common predators in acidified lakes. Holarctic Ecology 13:201-206.
57. HESS, Z. J., AND R. N. HARRIS. 2000. Eggs of Hemidactylum scutatum (Caudata: Plethodontidae) are unpalatable to insect predators. Copeia 2000:597-600.
58. HEUSSER, H. 1970. Spawn eating by tadpoles as possible cause of specific biotope preferences and short breeding times in European anurans (Amphibia, Anura). Oecologia 4:83-88.
59. HEWS, D. K. 1988. Alarm response in larval western toads, Bufo boreas: release of larval chemicals by a natural predator and its effect on predator capture efficiency. Animal Behavior 36:125-133.
60. HEYER, W. R., AND M. H. MUEDEKING. 1976. Notes on tadpoles as prey for naiads and turtles. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 66:235-239.
61. HEYER, W. R., R. W. MCDIARMID, AND D. L. WEIGMANN. 1975. Tadpoles, predation, and pond habitats in the tropics. Biotropica 7:100-111.
62. HIGHTON, R., AND T. SAVAGE. 1961. Functions of the brooding behavior in the female Red-Backed Salamander, Plethodon cinereus. Copeia 1961:95-98.
63. HOFFMAN, R. L., AND G. L. LARSON. 1999. Ambystoma gracile (Northwestern Salamander) predation and cannibalism. Herpetological Review 30:159.
64. HOLOMUZKI, J. R. 1986a. Intraspecific predation and habitat use by Tiger Salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinum nebulosum). Journal of Herpetology 20: 439-441.
65. _. 1986b. Predator avoidance and diel patterns of microhabitat use larval by Tiger Salamanders. Ecology 67:737-748.
66. HOWARD, R. D. 1978. The influence of male-defended oviposition sites on early embryo mortality in Bullfrogs. Ecology 59:789-798.
67. JENNINGS, M. R., AND D. COOK. 1998. Taricha torosa torosa (Coast Range Newt) predation. Herpetological Review 29:230.
68. JENNINGS JR., W. S., AND G. C. SCHAEFER. 1978. Antipredative function of the gelatinous coating of the eggs of the frog, Rana p. pipiens Schreber (Amphibia: Ranidae). Virginia Journal of Science 29:62.
69. JOHNSON, C. R., AND C. B. SCHRECK. 1969. Food and feeding of larval Dicamptodon ensatus from California. American Midland Naturalist 81:280-281.
70. JOHNSON, S. A. 1996. Hyla femoralis (Pine Woods Treefrog) predation. Herpetological Review 27:140.
71. JONES, M. S., J. P. GOETTL, AND L. J. LIVO. 1999. Bufo boreas (Boreal Toad) predation. Herpetological Review 30:91.
72. KAPLAN, R. H., AND P. W. SHERMAN. 1980. Intraspecific oophagy in California Newts. Journal of Herpetology 14:183-185.
73. KATS, L. B. 1986. Nerodia sipedon (Northern Water Snake) feeding. Herpetological Review 17:61-64.
74. KATS, L. B., J. W. PETRANKA, AND A. SIH. 1988. Anitpredator defenses and the persistence of amphibian larvae with fishes. Ecology 69:1865-1870.
75. KIESECKER, J. 1996. pH-mediated predator-prey interactions between Ambystoma tigrinum and Pseudacris triseriata. Ecological Applications 6:1325-1331.
76. KIESECKER, J. M., AND A. R. BLAUSTEIN. 1997. Population differences in responses of Red Legged Frogs (Rana aurora) to introdced bullfrogs. Ecology 78: 1752-1760.
77. KLUGE, A. G. 1981. The life history, social organization, and parental behavior of Hyla rosenbergi Boulenger, a nest-building gladiator frog. Miscellaneous Publications, Museum of Zoology, Univ. of Michigan 160:1-170
78. KRUSE, K. C., AND M. G. FRANCIS. 1977. A predation deterrent in larvae of the Bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 106:248-252.
79. KRUSE, K. C., AND B. M. STONE. 1984. Largemouth Bass (Micropterus salmoides) learn to avoid feeding on the toad (Bufo) tadpoles. Animal Behaviour 32: 1035-1039.
80. KUPFERBERG, S. J. 1998. Predator mediated patch use by tadoples (Hyla regilla): risk balancing or consequence of motionlessness? Journal of Herpetology 32:84-92.
81. KUSANO, T., H. KUSANO, AND K. MIYASHITA. 1985. Size-related cannibalism among larval Hynobius nebulosus. Copeia 1985:472-476.
82. LAWLER, S. P. 1989. Behavioural responses to predation and predation risk in four species of larval anurans. Animal Behaviour 38:1039-1047.
83. LECLAIR JR., R., AND J. P. BOURASSA. 1981. Observation et analyse de la predation des oeufsa d' Ambystoma maculatum (Shaw) (Amphibia: Urodela) par des larves de Dipteres chironomides, dans la region de Trois-Rivieres (Quebec). Canadian Journal of Zoology 59:1339-1343.
84. LEFCORT, H., D. G. HOKIT, J. J. BEATTY, AND C. HAKELEV. 1991. Thamnophis sirtalis fitchi (Valley Garter Snake) feeding behavior. Herpetological Review 22:101.
85. LICHT, L. E. 1968. Unpalatibility and toxicity of of toad eggs. Herpetologica 24:93-98.
86. _. 1969. Palatability of Rana and Hyla eggs. American Midland Naturalist 82:296-298.
87. LIEM, K. F. 1961. On the taxonomic status and the granular patches of the Javanese frog Rana chalconota Schlegel. Herpetologica 17:69-71.
88. LIND, A. J., AND H. H. WELSH JR. 1990. Predation by Thamnophis couchii on Dicamptodon ensatus. Journal of Herpetology 24:104-106.
89. MAGNUSSON, W. E., AND J. M. HERO. 1991. Predation and the evolution of complex oviposition behaviour in Amazon rainforest frogs. Oecologia 86:310-318.
90. MANTEIFEL, Y. 1995. Chemically-mediated avoidance of predators by Rana temporaria tadpoles. Journal of Herpetology 29:461-463.
91. MARTIN, A. A. 1967. The biology of tadpoles. Australian Natural History 1967:326-330.
92. MCCALLUM, M. L. 1995. Nerodia sipedon sipedon (Northern Water Snake) feeding. Herpetological Review 26:39-40.
93. MCCANN, C. 1932. Notes on Indianbatrachians. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 36:152-180.
94. MCDIARMID, R. W., AND R. ALTIG. 1999. Tadpoles: The Biology of Anuran Larvae. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago.
95. MCINTYRE, P. 1999. Hylarana albolabris (NCN) predation. Herpetological Review 30:223.
96. MIAUD, C. 1993. Predation on newt eggs (Triturus alpestris and T. helveticus): identification of predators and protective role of oviposition behaviour. Journal of Zoology 231:575-582.
97. MORIN, P. J. 1983a. Competitive and predatory interactions in natural and experimental populations of Notophthalmus viridescens dorsalis and Ambystoma tigrinum. Copeia 1983:628-639.
98. _. 1983b. Predation, competition, and the composition of larval anuran communities. Ecological Monographs 53:119-138.
99. MORIN, P. J. 1985. Predation intensity, prey survival, and injury frequency in an amphibian predatorprey interaction. Copeia 1985:638-644.
100. MOUNT, R. H. 1975. The Reptiles and Amphibians of Alabama. Auburn Publishing Co., Auburn, AL.
101. MURPHY, T. D. 1961. Predation on eggs of the salamander, Ambystoma maculatum, by trichoptera larvae. Copeia 1961:495-496.
102. MYERS, C. W. 1974. The systematics of Rhadinaea (Colubridae), a genus of new world snakes. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 153:1-262.
103. MYERS, C. W., AND J. W. DALY. 1983. Dart-Poison Frogs. Scientific American 248:120-133.
104. NORRIS, D. O. 1989. Seasonal changes in diet of paedogenetic Tiger Salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinum mavortium). Journal of Herpetology 23: 87-89.
105. NYMAN, S., R. F. WILKINSON, AND J. E. HUTCHERSON. 1993. Cannibalism and size relations in a cohort of larval Ringed Salamanders (Ambystoma annulatum). Journal of Herpetology 27:78-84.
106. PEACOR, S. D., AND E. E. WERNER. 1997. Trait-mediated indirect interactions in a simple aquatic food web. Ecology 78:1146-1156.
107. PEIXOTO, O. L., AND M. D. R. GOMES. 1997. Hyla minuta (NCN) tadpole behavior. Herpetological Review 28:146-147.
108. PETERSON, J. A., AND A. R. BLAUSTEIN. 1991. Unpalatability in anuran larvae as a defense against natural salamander predators. Ethology Ecology and Evolution 3:63-72.
109. _. 1992. Relative palatabilities of anuran larvae to natural aquatic insect predators. Copeia 1992:577-584.
110. PETRANKA, J. W. 1983. Fish predation: a factor affecting the spatial distribution of a stream-breeding salamander. Copeia 1983:624-628.
111. PETRANKA, J. W., M. E. HOPEY, B. T. JENNINGS, S. D. BAIRD, AND S. J. BOONE. 1994. Breeding habitat segregation of Wood Frogs and American Toads: the role of interspecific tadpole predation and adult choice. Copeia 1994:691-697.
112. PETRANKA, J. W., A. W. RUSHLOW, AND M. E. HOPEY. 1998. Predation by tadpoles of Rana sylvatica on embryos of Ambystoma macrodactylum: implications of ecological role reversals by Rana (predator) and Ambystoma (prey). Herpetologica 54:1-13.
113. PFENNIG, D. W., AND W. A. FRANKINO. 1997. Kinmediated morphogenesis in facultatively cannabalistic tadpoles. Evolution 51:1993-1999.
114. POPE, K. L. 1999. Rana muscosa (Mountain Yellow-Legged Frog) diet. Herpetological Review 30: 163-164.
115. RATHBUN, G. B. 1998. Rana aurora draytonii (California Red-Legged Frog) egg predation. Herpetological Review 29:165.
116. RELYEA, R. A. 2001. Morphological and behavioral plasticity of larval anurans in response to different predators. Ecology 82:523-540.
117. RESETARITS JR., W. J. 1998. Differential vulnerability of Hyla chrysoscelis eggs and hatchlings to larval insect predators. Journal of Herpetology 32: 440-443.
118. RICHARDS, S. J., AND C. M. BULL. 1990. Non-visual detection of anuran tadpoles by odonate larvae. Journal of Herpetology 24:311-313.
119. RICHARDSON, J. M. L. 2001a. A comparative study of activity levels in larval anurans and response to the presence of different predators. Behavioral Ecology 12:51-58.
120. _. 2001b. The relative roles of adaptation and phylogeny in determination of larval traits in diversifying anuran lineages. American Naturalist 157:282-299.
121. ROGERS, C. P. 1996. Rana catesbeiana (Bullfrog) predation. Herpetological Review 27:19.
122. ROSE, F. L. 1989. Aspects of the biology of the Concho Watersnake (Nerodia harteri paucimaculata). Texas Journal of Science 41:115-130.
123. ROWE, C. L., W. J. SADINSKI, AND W. A. DUNSON. 1994. Predation on larval and embryonic amphibians by acid-tolerant trichoptera larvae (Ptilostomis postica). Journal of Herpetology 28:357-364.
124. SAUMURE, R. A. 1993. Rana catesbeiana (Bullfrog) predation. Herpetological Review 24:30-31.
125. SEMLITSCH, R. D. 1988. Allotopic distribution of two salamanders: effects of fish predation and competitive interactions. Copeia 1988:290-298.
126. _. 1993. Effects of different predators on the survival and development of tadpoles from the hybridogenetic Rana esculenta complex. Oikos 67:40-46.
127. SHERRATT, T. N., AND I. F. HARVEY. 1989. Predation by larvae of Pantala flavescens (Odonata) on tadpoles of Phyllomedusa trinitatis and Physalaemus pustulosus: the influence of absolute and relative density of prey on predator choice. Oikos 56:170-176.
128. SIH, A., J. W. PETRANKA, AND L. B. KATS. 1988. The dynamics of prey refuge use: a model and tests with sunfish and salamander larvae. American Naturalist 132:463-483.
129. SMITH, B. G. 1907. The life history and habits of Cryptobranchus allegheniensis. Biological Bulletin 13:5-39.
130. SMITH, D. C. 1983. Factors controlling tadpole populations of the chors fog (Pseudacris triseriata) on Isla Royale, Michigan. Ecology 64:501-510.
131. SOKOL, O. M. 1962. The tadpole of Hymenochirus boettgeri. Copeia 1962:272-284.
132. STARRETT, P. 1960. Descriptions of tadpoles of middle American frogs. Miscellaneous Publications, Museum of Zoology, Univ. of Michigan 110:1-39.
133. STEBBINS, R. C., AND N. W. COHEN. 1995. A Natural History of Amphibians. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, NJ.
134. STEIN, R. J. 1985. Rana sylvatica (Wood Frog) predation. Herpetological Review 16:109-111.
135. STOUT III, B. M., K. K. STOUT, AND C. W. STIHLER. 1992. Predation by the trichoptera Banksiola dossuaria on egg masses of the Spotted Salamander Ambystoma maculatum. American Midland Naturalist 127: 368-372.
136. STUART, J. N., AND C. W. PAINTER. 1993. Rana catesbeiana (Bullfrog) cannibalism. Herpetological Review 24: 103.
137. TEJEDO, M. 1991. Effect of predation by two species of sympatric tadpoles on embryo survival in Natterjack Toads (Bufo calamita). Herpetologica 47:322-327.
138. _. 1993. Size-dependent vulnerability and behavioral responses of tadpoles of two anuran species to coleopteran larvae predators. Herpetologica 49: 287-294.
139. TRAVIS, J., AND J. C. TREXLER. 1986. Interactions among factors affecting growth, development and survival in experimental populations of Bufo terrestris (Anura: Bufonidae). Oecologia 69:110-116.
140. TRAVIS, J., W. H. KEEN, AND J. JUILIANNA. 1985. The role of relative body size in a predator-prey relationship between dragonfly naiads and larval anurans. Oikos 45:59-65.
141. VAN BUSKIRK, J., AND S. A. MCCOLLUM. 1999. Plasticity and selection explain variation in tadpole phenotype between ponds with different predator composition. Oikos 85:31-39.
142. VAN BUSKIRK, J., AND B. R. SCHMIDT. 2000. Predator-induced plasticity in larval newts: trade-offs, selection, and variation in nature. Ecology 81: 3009-3028.
143. VILLA, J., AND D. S. TOWNSEND. 1983. Viable frog eggs eaten by phorid fly larvae. Journal of Herpetology 17:278-281.
144. VORIS, H. K., AND J. P. BACON JR. 1966. Differential predation on tadpoles. Copeia 1966:594-598.
145. WALTERS, B. 1975. Studies of interspecific predation within an amphibian community. Journal of Herpetology 9:267-279.
146. WARD, D., AND O. J. SEXTON. 1981. Anti-predator role of salamander egg membranes. Copeia 1981: 724-726.
147. WASSERSUG, R. 1971. On the comparative palatability of some dry-season tadpoles from Costa Rica. American Midland Naturalist 86:101-109.
148. WASSERSUG, R. J., AND D. G. SPERRY. 1977. The relationship of locomotion to differential predation on Pseudacris triseriata (Anura: Hylidae). Ecology 58: 830-839.
149. WELLBORN, G. A., D. K. SKELLY, AND E. E. WERNER. 1996. Mechanisms creating community structure across a freshwater habitat gradient. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 27:337-363.
150. WERNER, E. E., AND M. A. MCPEEK. 1994. Direct and indirect effects of predators on two anuran species along an environmental gradient. Ecology 75: 1368-1382.
151. WERSCHKUL, D. F., AND M. T. CHRISTENSEN. 1977. Differential predation by Lepomis macrochirus on the eggs and tadpoles of Rana. Herpetologica 33: 237-241.
152. WILBUR, H. M. 1972. Competition, predation, and the structure of the Ambystoma-Rana sylvatica community. Ecology 53:3-21.
153. _. 1997. Experimental ecology of food webs: complex systems in temporary ponds. Ecology 78: 2279-2302.
154. WILDY, E. L., D. P. CHIVERS, J. M. KIESECKER, AND A. R. BLAUSTEIN. 1998. Cannibalism enhances growth in larval Long-Toed Salamanders (Ambystoma macrodactylum). Journal of Herpetology 32:286-289.
155. WOODWARD, B. D. 1983. Predator-prey interactions and breeding-pond use of temporary pond species in a desert anuran community. Ecology 64:1549-1555.
156. YOUNG, A. M. 1967. Predation in the larvae of Dytiscus marginalis Linneaus (Coleopteran: Dytiscidae). PanPacific Entomologist 43:113-117.
157. ZIMMERMANN, M., AND J. R. SPENCE. 1989. Prey use of the Fishing Spider Dolomedes triton (Pisauridae, Araneae): an important predator of the neuston comunity. Oecologia 80:187-194.
158. ZUG, G. R., L. J. VITT, AND J. P. CALDWELL. 2001. Herpetology: An Introductory Biology of Amphibians and Reptiles. 2nd ed. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.