Women and minorities in state government agencies

Public Personnel Management

Volumn 33, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 165-180

  Kim, Chon Kyun ^a  

^a MIDWESTERN STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 2942729985     PISSN: 00910260     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/009102600403300203     Document Type: Article

References (69)

1. Rosenbloom, David H. 1980. "The Federal Affirmative Action Policy," in David Nachmias, ed., The Practice of Policy Evaluation. New York: St. Martin Press. pp. 169-186; Kelly, Rita Mae, Mary E. Guy, Jane Bayes, Cathy Johnson. 1991. "Public Managers in the States: A Comparison of Career Advancement by Sex." Public Administration Review 51 (November/December): 402-412; Riccucci, Norma M., and Judith R. Saidel. 1997. "The Representativeness of State-Level Bureaucratic Leaders: A Missing Piece of the Representative Bureaucratic Puzzle." Public Administration Review 57 (September/October): 423-430.
2. Rosenbloom, David H. 1980. "The Federal Affirmative Action Policy," in David Nachmias, ed., The Practice of Policy Evaluation. New York: St. Martin Press. pp. 169-186; Kelly, Rita Mae, Mary E. Guy, Jane Bayes, Cathy Johnson. 1991. "Public Managers in the States: A Comparison of Career Advancement by Sex." Public Administration Review 51 (November/December): 402-412; Riccucci, Norma M., and Judith R. Saidel. 1997. "The Representativeness of State-Level Bureaucratic Leaders: A Missing Piece of the Representative Bureaucratic Puzzle." Public Administration Review 57 (September/October): 423-430.
3. Rosenbloom, David H. 1980. "The Federal Affirmative Action Policy," in David Nachmias, ed., The Practice of Policy Evaluation. New York: St. Martin Press. pp. 169-186; Kelly, Rita Mae, Mary E. Guy, Jane Bayes, Cathy Johnson. 1991. "Public Managers in the States: A Comparison of Career Advancement by Sex." Public Administration Review 51 (November/December): 402-412; Riccucci, Norma M., and Judith R. Saidel. 1997. "The Representativeness of State-Level Bureaucratic Leaders: A Missing Piece of the Representative Bureaucratic Puzzle." Public Administration Review 57 (September/October): 423-430.
4. Saltzstein, Alan. 1986. "Female Mayors and Women in Municipal Jobs." American Journal of Political Science 30 (February): 140-164; Hale, Mary M., and Rita Mae Kelly, eds. 1989. Gender, Bureaucracy, and Democracy. New York: Greenwood Press; Mladenka, Kenneth R. 1989. "Blacks and Hispanics in Urban Politics." American Political Science Review 83 (March): 165-191; Cornwell, Christopher, and J. Edward Kellough. 1994. "Women and Minorities in Federal Government Agencies: Examining New Evidence from Panel Data." Public Administration Review 54 (May/June): 265-270.
5. Saltzstein, Alan. 1986. "Female Mayors and Women in Municipal Jobs." American Journal of Political Science 30 (February): 140-164; Hale, Mary M., and Rita Mae Kelly, eds. 1989. Gender, Bureaucracy, and Democracy. New York: Greenwood Press; Mladenka, Kenneth R. 1989. "Blacks and Hispanics in Urban Politics." American Political Science Review 83 (March): 165-191; Cornwell, Christopher, and J. Edward Kellough. 1994. "Women and Minorities in Federal Government Agencies: Examining New Evidence from Panel Data." Public Administration Review 54 (May/June): 265-270.
6. Saltzstein, Alan. 1986. "Female Mayors and Women in Municipal Jobs." American Journal of Political Science 30 (February): 140-164; Hale, Mary M., and Rita Mae Kelly, eds. 1989. Gender, Bureaucracy, and Democracy. New York: Greenwood Press; Mladenka, Kenneth R. 1989. "Blacks and Hispanics in Urban Politics." American Political Science Review 83 (March): 165-191; Cornwell, Christopher, and J. Edward Kellough. 1994. "Women and Minorities in Federal Government Agencies: Examining New Evidence from Panel Data." Public Administration Review 54 (May/June): 265-270.
7. Saltzstein, Alan. 1986. "Female Mayors and Women in Municipal Jobs." American Journal of Political Science 30 (February): 140-164; Hale, Mary M., and Rita Mae Kelly, eds. 1989. Gender, Bureaucracy, and Democracy. New York: Greenwood Press; Mladenka, Kenneth R. 1989. "Blacks and Hispanics in Urban Politics." American Political Science Review 83 (March): 165-191; Cornwell, Christopher, and J. Edward Kellough. 1994. "Women and Minorities in Federal Government Agencies: Examining New Evidence from Panel Data." Public Administration Review 54 (May/June): 265-270.
8. Dometrius, Nelson C. 1984. "Minorities and Women Among State Agency Leaders." Social Science Quarterly 65 (1); 127-137; Krislov, Samuel, and David H. Rosenbloom. 1981. Representative Bureaucracy and the American Political System. New York: Praeger; Newman, Meredith Ann. 1994. "Gender and Lowi's Thesis: Implications for Career Advancement." Public Administration Review 54 (May/June): 277-284; Miller, Will, Brinck Kerr, and Margaret Reid. 1999. "A National Study of Gender-Based Occupational Segregation in Municipal Bureaucracies: Persistence of Glass Walls?" Public Administration Review 59 (May/June): 218-230.
9. Dometrius, Nelson C. 1984. "Minorities and Women Among State Agency Leaders." Social Science Quarterly 65 (1); 127-137; Krislov, Samuel, and David H. Rosenbloom. 1981. Representative Bureaucracy and the American Political System. New York: Praeger; Newman, Meredith Ann. 1994. "Gender and Lowi's Thesis: Implications for Career Advancement." Public Administration Review 54 (May/June): 277-284; Miller, Will, Brinck Kerr, and Margaret Reid. 1999. "A National Study of Gender-Based Occupational Segregation in Municipal Bureaucracies: Persistence of Glass Walls?" Public Administration Review 59 (May/June): 218-230.
10. Dometrius, Nelson C. 1984. "Minorities and Women Among State Agency Leaders." Social Science Quarterly 65 (1); 127-137; Krislov, Samuel, and David H. Rosenbloom. 1981. Representative Bureaucracy and the American Political System. New York: Praeger; Newman, Meredith Ann. 1994. "Gender and Lowi's Thesis: Implications for Career Advancement." Public Administration Review 54 (May/June): 277-284; Miller, Will, Brinck Kerr, and Margaret Reid. 1999. "A National Study of Gender-Based Occupational Segregation in Municipal Bureaucracies: Persistence of Glass Walls?" Public Administration Review 59 (May/June): 218-230.
11. Dometrius, Nelson C. 1984. "Minorities and Women Among State Agency Leaders." Social Science Quarterly 65 (1); 127-137; Krislov, Samuel, and David H. Rosenbloom. 1981. Representative Bureaucracy and the American Political System. New York: Praeger; Newman, Meredith Ann. 1994. "Gender and Lowi's Thesis: Implications for Career Advancement." Public Administration Review 54 (May/June): 277-284; Miller, Will, Brinck Kerr, and Margaret Reid. 1999. "A National Study of Gender-Based Occupational Segregation in Municipal Bureaucracies: Persistence of Glass Walls?" Public Administration Review 59 (May/June): 218-230.
12. Gayer, N. Joseph, and Lee Sigelman. 1980. "Minorities and Women in State and Local Government: 1973-75." Public Administration Review 40 (September/October): 443-450; Hutchins, Matthew, and Lee Sigelman. 1981. "Black Employment in State and Local Governments: A Comparative Analysis." Social Science Quarterly 62 (March): 79-87; Dometrius. 1984; Kelly, et al. 1991; Bullard, Angela M., and Dell S. Wright. 1993. "Circumventing the Glass Ceiling: Women Executives in American State Governments." Public Administrative Review 53 (May/June): 189-202; Riccucci and Saidel. 1997.
13. Gayer, N. Joseph, and Lee Sigelman. 1980. "Minorities and Women in State and Local Government: 1973-75." Public Administration Review 40 (September/October): 443-450; Hutchins, Matthew, and Lee Sigelman. 1981. "Black Employment in State and Local Governments: A Comparative Analysis." Social Science Quarterly 62 (March): 79-87; Dometrius. 1984; Kelly, et al. 1991; Bullard, Angela M., and Dell S. Wright. 1993. "Circumventing the Glass Ceiling: Women Executives in American State Governments." Public Administrative Review 53 (May/June): 189-202; Riccucci and Saidel. 1997.
14. Gayer, N. Joseph, and Lee Sigelman. 1980. "Minorities and Women in State and Local Government: 1973-75." Public Administration Review 40 (September/October): 443-450; Hutchins, Matthew, and Lee Sigelman. 1981. "Black Employment in State and Local Governments: A Comparative Analysis." Social Science Quarterly 62 (March): 79-87; Dometrius. 1984; Kelly, et al. 1991; Bullard, Angela M., and Dell S. Wright. 1993. "Circumventing the Glass Ceiling: Women Executives in American State Governments." Public Administrative Review 53 (May/June): 189-202; Riccucci and Saidel. 1997.
15. Gayer, N. Joseph, and Lee Sigelman. 1980. "Minorities and Women in State and Local Government: 1973-75." Public Administration Review 40 (September/October): 443-450; Hutchins, Matthew, and Lee Sigelman. 1981. "Black Employment in State and Local Governments: A Comparative Analysis." Social Science Quarterly 62 (March): 79-87; Dometrius. 1984; Kelly, et al. 1991; Bullard, Angela M., and Dell S. Wright. 1993. "Circumventing the Glass Ceiling: Women Executives in American State Governments." Public Administrative Review 53 (May/June): 189-202; Riccucci and Saidel. 1997.
16. Gayer, N. Joseph, and Lee Sigelman. 1980. "Minorities and Women in State and Local Government: 1973-75." Public Administration Review 40 (September/October): 443-450; Hutchins, Matthew, and Lee Sigelman. 1981. "Black Employment in State and Local Governments: A Comparative Analysis." Social Science Quarterly 62 (March): 79-87; Dometrius. 1984; Kelly, et al. 1991; Bullard, Angela M., and Dell S. Wright. 1993. "Circumventing the Glass Ceiling: Women Executives in American State Governments." Public Administrative Review 53 (May/June): 189-202; Riccucci and Saidel. 1997.
17. Gayer, N. Joseph, and Lee Sigelman. 1980. "Minorities and Women in State and Local Government: 1973-75." Public Administration Review 40 (September/October): 443-450; Hutchins, Matthew, and Lee Sigelman. 1981. "Black Employment in State and Local Governments: A Comparative Analysis." Social Science Quarterly 62 (March): 79-87; Dometrius. 1984; Kelly, et al. 1991; Bullard, Angela M., and Dell S. Wright. 1993. "Circumventing the Glass Ceiling: Women Executives in American State Governments." Public Administrative Review 53 (May/June): 189-202; Riccucci and Saidel. 1997.
18. Lowi, Theodore. 1985. "The State in Politics: The Relation Between Policy and Administration," in R. Noll (ed.). RegulatoryPolicy and The Social Sciences. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 67-104.
19. Lowi (1985, 85-95) indicated that regulatory agencies concern formulating or implementing rules imposing obligations on individuals; distributive agencies is the opposite of regulatory agencies on the grounds that the relationship between agencies and individuals is patron and client rather than controller and controlled; redistributive agencies deal with rules or activities discriminating along broad class lines, e.g., the money providers and the service demanders; and constituent agencies concern maintenance of sovereignty, e.g., agencies for budgetary and personnel policy.
20. Riccucci and Saidel. 1997. p. 426.
21. Newman. 1994.
22. Miller, et al. 1999.
23. Nachmias, David and David H. Rosenbloom. 1973. "Measuring Bureaucratic Representation and Integration." Public Administration Review 33 (November/December): 590-597; Grabosky, Peter N., and David H. Rosenbloom. 1975. "Racial and Ethnic Integration in the Federal Service." Social Science Quarterly 56 (June): 71-84.
24. Nachmias, David and David H. Rosenbloom. 1973. "Measuring Bureaucratic Representation and Integration." Public Administration Review 33 (November/December): 590-597; Grabosky, Peter N., and David H. Rosenbloom. 1975. "Racial and Ethnic Integration in the Federal Service." Social Science Quarterly 56 (June): 71-84.
25. Meier, Kenneth J. 1978. "Constraints on Affirmative Action." Policy Studies Journal 7 (Winter): 208-213. p. 211.
26. Krislov, Samuel. 1967. The Negro In Federal Employment. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. p. 139.
27. Kellough, J. Edward. 1990. "Integration in the Public Workplace: Determinants of Minority and Female Employment in Federal Agencies." Public Administration Review 50 (September/October): 557-564.
28. Kellough, J. Edward. 1989. Federal Equal Employment Opportunity Policy and NumericalGoals and Timetables. New York: Praeger. p. 113
29. Kellough. 1990. p. 564.
30. Sigelman, Lee. 1976. "The Curious Case of Women in State and Local Government." Social Science Quarterly 56 (4): 591-604; Hutchins and Sigelman. 1981; Saltzstein, Grace Hall. 1983. Personnel Directors and Female Employment Representation: A New Addition to Models of Equal Employment Opportunity Policy? Social Science Quarterly 64: 734-751.
31. Sigelman, Lee. 1976. "The Curious Case of Women in State and Local Government." Social Science Quarterly 56 (4): 591-604; Hutchins and Sigelman. 1981; Saltzstein, Grace Hall. 1983. Personnel Directors and Female Employment Representation: A New Addition to Models of Equal Employment Opportunity Policy? Social Science Quarterly 64: 734-751.
32. Sigelman, Lee. 1976. "The Curious Case of Women in State and Local Government." Social Science Quarterly 56 (4): 591-604; Hutchins and Sigelman. 1981; Saltzstein, Grace Hall. 1983. Personnel Directors and Female Employment Representation: A New Addition to Models of Equal Employment Opportunity Policy? Social Science Quarterly 64: 734-751.
33. Population, education, and unemployment could be included in the independent variables. These variables, however, are highly correlated with one another. To eliminate the problem of multi-collinearity, these variables are excluded in the model. Some explanatory variables, included in other studies, are not incorporated into the model due to insufficient data or the measurement problem. The impact of political variables or affirmative action programs on female and minority employment could be identified by time series analysis requiring data for many years instead of only one year. Additionally, political variables might be more effective on the appointment at higher-level positions like political appointees than civil service positions. Most state agency employees are protected by the merit principle and professionalism, and, thus, political variables could be less effective on employment of career civil servants. Even if affirmative action policies and political characteristics are not included in the model, these variables are partly accounted for as a potential predictor of female and minority employment in state government agencies.
34. Lowi. 1985.
35. State of Michigan. Department of Civil Service. 2001. Twenty-First Annual Work Force Report: Fiscal Year 2000. MI: Bureau of Human Resource, p. 141.
36. State of Pennsylvania. Department of Labor and Industry. 2001. Governor's Annual Workforce Report: Fiscal Year 2000. PA: Center for Workforce Information and Analysis, p. 13. Asian Americans and Native Americans in Pennsylvania are classified as other. Why are women in Pennsylvania and Hispanics and Asian Americans in Michigan and Pennsylvania poorly represented? The executive branch in these states was likely to be controlled by Republicans for the past four decades. These states have also a history of liberal Republican governors. There would be interesting findings if we were to test whether there are any differences among Republican governors regarding female and minority representation in these state agencies.
37. State of Michigan. 2001. p. 140; State of Pennsylvania. 2001. pp. 18-19.
38. State of Michigan. 2001. p. 140; State of Pennsylvania. 2001. pp. 18-19.
39. I b i d.
40. State of Michigan. 2001. p. 140.
41. Ibid. p. 43.
42. State of Pennsylvania. 2001. p. 52.
43. Approximately 20 percent of the Michigan population in 2000 were minorities, 14.49 percent African Americans, 3.25 percent Hispanics, 1.83 percent Asian Americans, and .6 percent: Native Americans; 15 percent of the Pennsylvania population in 2000 were minorities, 9.97 percent African Americans, 3.2 percent Hispanics, 1.78 percent Asian Americans, and .15 percent Native Americans (U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. 2000. States Ranked by Black, Hispanic, Asian, and American Indian, http://www.census.gov/population/estimates/state/rank/black.txt). Across the United States of America, African Americans composed 12.2 percent of the general population in 2000, Hispanics 11.9 percent, Asian Americans 3.8 percent, and Native Americans .7 percent.
44. African Americans make up about 40 percent of population in Philadelphia. The Asian population also increased significantly in Philadelphia for the past two decades. Since whites have moved to the suburbs, large cities have been occupied by minorities. In Michigan and Pennsylvania, generally, central cities depend on service-oriented business and non-manufacturing jobs, whereas outside central cities rely on agriculture and family-owned business. Although Detroit and its metropolitan areas are still leaders of the automotive industry, their main industry is service-oriented business. With the collapse of the steel industry in the 1980s, Pittsburgh also heavily relies on non-manufacturing industries (Schmittroth, Linda, ed. 2001. Cities of the United States. New York: Gale Group).
45. State of Michigan. 2001. p. 141.
46. State of Michigan. 2001. p. 141; State of Pennsylvania. 2001. p. 14.
47. State of Michigan. 2001. p. 141; State of Pennsylvania. 2001. p. 14.
48. I b i d.
49. Wildavsky, Aaron. 1979. Speaking Truth To Power: The Art and Craft of Policy Analysis. Boston: Little, Brown and Company; Newman. 1994; Miller, et al. 1999. p. 221.
50. Wildavsky, Aaron. 1979. Speaking Truth To Power: The Art and Craft of Policy Analysis. Boston: Little, Brown and Company; Newman. 1994; Miller, et al. 1999. p. 221.
51. Wildavsky, Aaron. 1979. Speaking Truth To Power: The Art and Craft of Policy Analysis. Boston: Little, Brown and Company; Newman. 1994; Miller, et al. 1999. p. 221.
52. When were states covered by federal affirmative action guidelines? President Lyndon Johnson issued Executive Order 11246 in 1965, its amendments, and Executive Order 11478 in 1967, in which state and local government employers receiving federal funds, for example, federal contractors with contracts in excess of $50,000 and 50 or more employees, should engage in affirmative action to recruit, hire, and promote women and people of color when these groups are under-used by the employer (Lee, Robert D., Jr. 1993. Public Personnel Systems. Gaithersburg, M.D.: An Aspen Publication. p. 245; Graham, Jr., Cole Blease. 1995. Equal Employment Opportunity and Affirmative Action: Policies, Techniques, and Controversies. In Steven W. Hays and Richard C. Kearney, eds., Public Personnel Administration: Problems and Prospectus. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. p. 204; Riccucci, Norma M. 1998. A Practical Guide to Affirmative Action. In Stephen E. Condrey, ed., Handbook of Human Resource Management in Government. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, p. 167). In addition, the Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972 extended Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to federal, state, and local governments as well as public and private educational institutions (Graham, Jr. 1995, 205). Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited employment discrimination in hiring, promotion, and training on the basis of race, color, gender, or national origin. While the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) primarily concerned with the private sector hitherto, "the EEO Act of 1972 brought state and local governments under the federal EEO umbrella for the first time" (Shafritz, Jay M., Albert C. Hyde, and David H. Rosenbloom. 1986. Personnel Management in Government: Politics and Process. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. p. 193).
53. When were states covered by federal affirmative action guidelines? President Lyndon Johnson issued Executive Order 11246 in 1965, its amendments, and Executive Order 11478 in 1967, in which state and local government employers receiving federal funds, for example, federal contractors with contracts in excess of $50,000 and 50 or more employees, should engage in affirmative action to recruit, hire, and promote women and people of color when these groups are under-used by the employer (Lee, Robert D., Jr. 1993. Public Personnel Systems. Gaithersburg, M.D.: An Aspen Publication. p. 245; Graham, Jr., Cole Blease. 1995. Equal Employment Opportunity and Affirmative Action: Policies, Techniques, and Controversies. In Steven W. Hays and Richard C. Kearney, eds., Public Personnel Administration: Problems and Prospectus. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. p. 204; Riccucci, Norma M. 1998. A Practical Guide to Affirmative Action. In Stephen E. Condrey, ed., Handbook of Human Resource Management in Government. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, p. 167). In addition, the Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972 extended Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to federal, state, and local governments as well as public and private educational institutions (Graham, Jr. 1995, 205). Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited employment discrimination in hiring, promotion, and training on the basis of race, color, gender, or national origin. While the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) primarily concerned with the private sector hitherto, "the EEO Act of 1972 brought state and local governments under the federal EEO umbrella for the first time" (Shafritz, Jay M., Albert C. Hyde, and David H. Rosenbloom. 1986. Personnel Management in Government: Politics and Process. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. p. 193).
54. When were states covered by federal affirmative action guidelines? President Lyndon Johnson issued Executive Order 11246 in 1965, its amendments, and Executive Order 11478 in 1967, in which state and local government employers receiving federal funds, for example, federal contractors with contracts in excess of $50,000 and 50 or more employees, should engage in affirmative action to recruit, hire, and promote women and people of color when these groups are under-used by the employer (Lee, Robert D., Jr. 1993. Public Personnel Systems. Gaithersburg, M.D.: An Aspen Publication. p. 245; Graham, Jr., Cole Blease. 1995. Equal Employment Opportunity and Affirmative Action: Policies, Techniques, and Controversies. In Steven W. Hays and Richard C. Kearney, eds., Public Personnel Administration: Problems and Prospectus. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. p. 204; Riccucci, Norma M. 1998. A Practical Guide to Affirmative Action. In Stephen E. Condrey, ed., Handbook of Human Resource Management in Government. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, p. 167). In addition, the Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972 extended Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to federal, state, and local governments as well as public and private educational institutions (Graham, Jr. 1995, 205). Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited employment discrimination in hiring, promotion, and training on the basis of race, color, gender, or national origin. While the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) primarily concerned with the private sector hitherto, "the EEO Act of 1972 brought state and local governments under the federal EEO umbrella for the first time" (Shafritz, Jay M., Albert C. Hyde, and David H. Rosenbloom. 1986. Personnel Management in Government: Politics and Process. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. p. 193).
55. When were states covered by federal affirmative action guidelines? President Lyndon Johnson issued Executive Order 11246 in 1965, its amendments, and Executive Order 11478 in 1967, in which state and local government employers receiving federal funds, for example, federal contractors with contracts in excess of $50,000 and 50 or more employees, should engage in affirmative action to recruit, hire, and promote women and people of color when these groups are under-used by the employer (Lee, Robert D., Jr. 1993. Public Personnel Systems. Gaithersburg, M.D.: An Aspen Publication. p. 245; Graham, Jr., Cole Blease. 1995. Equal Employment Opportunity and Affirmative Action: Policies, Techniques, and Controversies. In Steven W. Hays and Richard C. Kearney, eds., Public Personnel Administration: Problems and Prospectus. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. p. 204; Riccucci, Norma M. 1998. A Practical Guide to Affirmative Action. In Stephen E. Condrey, ed., Handbook of Human Resource Management in Government. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, p. 167). In addition, the Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972 extended Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to federal, state, and local governments as well as public and private educational institutions (Graham, Jr. 1995, 205). Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited employment discrimination in hiring, promotion, and training on the basis of race, color, gender, or national origin. While the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) primarily concerned with the private sector hitherto, "the EEO Act of 1972 brought state and local governments under the federal EEO umbrella for the first time" (Shafritz, Jay M., Albert C. Hyde, and David H. Rosenbloom. 1986. Personnel Management in Government: Politics and Process. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. p. 193).
56. Rosenbloom. 1980; Hellriegel, Don, and Larry Short. 1972. "Equal Employment Opportunity in the Federal Government: A Comparative Analysis." Public Administration Review 32 (November/December): 851-858; Dometrius, Nelson C., and Lee Sigelman. 1984. "Assessing Progress toward Affirmative Action Goals in State and Local Government: A New Benchmark." Public Administration Review 44 (May/June): 241-246; Ortega, Ramona. 1999. Affirmative Action Policies and Workplace Discrimination. Review of Public Personnel Administration 19 (3): 49-57.
57. Rosenbloom. 1980; Hellriegel, Don, and Larry Short. 1972. "Equal Employment Opportunity in the Federal Government: A Comparative Analysis." Public Administration Review 32 (November/December): 851-858; Dometrius, Nelson C., and Lee Sigelman. 1984. "Assessing Progress toward Affirmative Action Goals in State and Local Government: A New Benchmark." Public Administration Review 44 (May/June): 241-246; Ortega, Ramona. 1999. Affirmative Action Policies and Workplace Discrimination. Review of Public Personnel Administration 19 (3): 49-57.
58. Rosenbloom. 1980; Hellriegel, Don, and Larry Short. 1972. "Equal Employment Opportunity in the Federal Government: A Comparative Analysis." Public Administration Review 32 (November/December): 851-858; Dometrius, Nelson C., and Lee Sigelman. 1984. "Assessing Progress toward Affirmative Action Goals in State and Local Government: A New Benchmark." Public Administration Review 44 (May/June): 241-246; Ortega, Ramona. 1999. Affirmative Action Policies and Workplace Discrimination. Review of Public Personnel Administration 19 (3): 49-57.
59. Rosenbloom. 1980; Hellriegel, Don, and Larry Short. 1972. "Equal Employment Opportunity in the Federal Government: A Comparative Analysis." Public Administration Review 32 (November/December): 851-858; Dometrius, Nelson C., and Lee Sigelman. 1984. "Assessing Progress toward Affirmative Action Goals in State and Local Government: A New Benchmark." Public Administration Review 44 (May/June): 241-246; Ortega, Ramona. 1999. Affirmative Action Policies and Workplace Discrimination. Review of Public Personnel Administration 19 (3): 49-57.
60. Rosenbloom. 1980.
61. Ibid, p. 182.
62. Kellough, J. Edward, and Susan Ann Kay. 1986. "Affirmative Action in the Federal Bureaucracy: An Impact Assessment." Review of Public Personnel Administration 6 (Spring): 1-13. p. 1.
63. Kellough. 1989. pp. 108-109.
64. Meier. 1978. p. 211.
65. Hellriegel and Short. 1972.
66. Dometrius and Sigelman. 1984.
67. Ibid, p. 241.
68. Ortega. 1999.
69. Riccucci, Norma M. 1991. Affirmative Action in Twenty-first Century: New Approaches and Developments. In Carolyn Ban and Norma M. Riccucci, eds., Public Personnel Management: Current Concerns-Future Challenges. New York: Longman. Since layoff decisions are made on the basis of seniority, that is, a "last-in, first-out" (LIFO) system and since women and minorities are usually the last to enter the workforce, women and minorities can be easily layed off when the size of workforce is cut (Riccucci 1991, 90; Lee, Jr. 1993, 264). Termination rates of women and minorities in Michigan and Pennsylvania are slightly higher than those of men arid non-minorities. For example, women and minorities made up 54.7 percent and 23.8 percent of total terminations in Michigan in 2000 and 44.3 percent and 19 percent in Pennsylvania, respectively (State of Michigan 2001, 118; State of Pennsylvania 2001, 21).