Embedding journalist in military combat units: Impact on newspaper story frames and tone

Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly

Volumn 81, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 74-88

  Pfau, Michael ^a   Haigh, Michel ^a   Gettle, Mitchell ^a   Donnelly, Michael ^a   Scott, Gregory ^a   Warr, Dana ^a   Wittenberg, Elaine ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

MEDIA INDUSTRY;

EID: 2942682960     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769900408100106     Document Type: Article

References (96)

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2. Secretary of Defense, "Public Affairs Guidance."
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6. Ellen Knickmeyer, "Military Prepares to Take Journalists into War," NAPA News.com, 8 March 2003, 1-3, available at
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10. Todd S. Purdum and Jim Rutenberg, "A Nation at War: The News Media; Reporters Respond Eagerly to Pentagon Welcome Mat," New York Times, 23 March 2003, sec. B, p. 3.
11. Secretary of Defense, "Public Affairs Guidance."
12. Purdum and Rutenberg, "A Nation at War," B3.
13. Doug Halonen, "The Pentagon Experiment: Spokesperson Clarke Documents Embed Process," Television Week, 19 May 2003, 18.
14. Sherry Ricchiardi, "Close to the Action," American Journalism Review, May 2003, 28-35.
15. Miskin, Rayner, and Lalic, "Media under Fire," 9.
16. See David Morrison and Howard Tumber, Journalists at War (London: Sage Publications, 1988).
17. Miskin, Rayner, and Lalic, "Media under Fire," 4 and 9.
18. Miskin, Rayner, and Lalic, "Media under Fire," 4.
19. Terrence Smith, "The Real-Time War: Defining News in the Middle East," Columbia Journalism Review, May/June 2003,1-8, available at .
20. Smith, "The Real-Time War," 3.
21. Getlin, "The War Beat," 2.
22. Brightman, "In Bed with the Pentagon," 2.
23. Miskin, Rayner, and Lalic, "Media under Fire," 9.
24. Jim Ledbetter, "Two Cheers for Embedding: War Coverage Has Been High Tech and Low Calorie, but Don't Blame the Messengers," Time Europe, 7 April 2003, 1-3, available at
25. Jim Rutenberg and Bill Carter, "A Nation at War: The News Media; Spectacular Success or Incomplete Picture? Views of TV's War Coverage Are Split," New York Times, 20 April 2003, sec. B, p. 15.
26. Williamson Murray and Maj. Gen. Robert H. Scales, Jr., The Iraq War: A Military History (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003).
27. Erving Goffman, Frame Analysis (New York: Harper & Row, 1974);
28. Herbert J. Gans, Deciding What's News (New York: Vintage, 1979).
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32. Vincent Price and David Tewksbury, "News Values and Public Opinion: A Theoretical Account of Media Priming and Framing," in Progress in Communication Sciences, ed. George A. Barnett and Franklin J. Boster (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1997), 481-506.
33. Price and Tewksbury, "News Values and Public Opinion," 175.
34. Shanto Iyengar, Is Anyone Responsible? How Television Frames Political Issues (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991).
35. Iyengar, Is Anyone Responsible?, 14.
36. Shanto Iyengar, "Framing Responsibility for Political Issues," Annals of the American Academy 546 (July 1996): 59-70, 62.
37. Iyengar, Is Anyone Responsible?, 14.
38. Iyengar, "Framing Responsibility for Political Issues," 62.
39. Iyengar, "Framing Responsibility for Political Issues," 62.
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41. Brightman, "In Bed with the Pentagon," 2.
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44. Kaplan, "The Story of A War," 161.
45. Murray and Scales, The Iraq War, 73.
46. Ledbetter, "Two Cheers for Embedding," 2.
47. Robert Jensen, "Embedded Media Give up Independence," The Boston Globe, 7 April 2003, sec. A, p. 19, available at .
48. Miskin, Rayner, and Lalic, "Media under Fire," 9.
49. James S. Tyree, "How the War Was Covered: Embedding Provided Depth, not Breadth, Journalists Say," The Norman Transcript, 14 October 2003, sec, A, p. 1.
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51. Dalmas A. Taylor, "Motivational Bases," in Self-Disclosure: Origins, Patterns, and Implications for Openness in Interpersonal Relationships, ed. Gordon J. Chelune and Associates (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1979), 110-50.
52. Valerian J. Derlega, Sandra Metts, Sandra Petronio, and Stephen T. Margulis, Self-Disclosure (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1993).
53. Joseph Soeters, "Culture in Uniformed Organizations," in Handbook of Organizational Culture & Climate, ed. Neal M. Ashkanasy, Celeste P. M. Wilderom, and Mark F. Peterson (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2000), 465-81.
54. Taylor, "Motivational Bases," 114.
55. A number of early studies consistently revealed positive associations between self-disclosure and liking. For a summary, see Taylor, "Motivational Bases," 122-23.
56. Lawrence R. Wheeless and Janis Grotz, "The Measurement of Trust and Its Relationship to Self-Disclosure," Human Communication Research 3 (spring 1977): 250-57.
57. Wayne E. Hensley, "A Theory of the Valenced Other: The Intersection of the Looking-Glass Self and Social Penetration," Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal 24 (3, 1996 ): 293-308.
58. Edgar H. Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership, 2d ed. (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1992), 12.
59. Michael Pacanowsky and Nick O'Donnell-Trujillo, "Organizational Communication as Cultural Performance," Communication Monographs 50 (June 1983): 126-47;
60. Janice M. Beyer, David R. Hannah, and Laurie P. Milton, "Ties that Bind: Culture and Attachments in Organizations," in Handbook of Organizational Culture & Climate, ed. Neal M. Ashkanasy, Celeste P. M. Wilderom, and Mark F. Peterson (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2000), 323-338.
61. Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership, 13.
62. Beyer, Hannah, and Milton, "Ties that Bind," 336.
63. Pacanowsky and O'Donnell-Trujillo, "Organizational Communication as Cultural Performance," 143.
64. Soeters, "Culture in Uniformed Organizations," 475.
65. Brightman, "In Bed with the Pentagon."
66. Soeters, "Culture in Uniformed Organizations."
67. Soeters, "Culture in Uniformed Organizations," 476.
68. Robert L. Heath and Jennings Bryant, Human Communication Theory and Research: Concepts, Contexts, and Challenges (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2000), 318.
69. Smith, "The Real-Time War," 3.
70. David Carr, "A Nation at War: The News Media," New York Times, 31 March 2003, sec. B, p. 2, available at .
71. Ricchiardi, "Close to the Action," 30.
72. "Pros and Cons of Embedded Journalism," NewsHour Extra (27 March 2003):1-3, available at .
73. Miskin, Rayner, and Lalic, "Media under Fire," 12.
74. Morrison and Tumber, Journalists at War, 97.
75. Content analysis was based on the first five days of ground operations because the study examined coverage across three conflicts and one of them, Operation "Desert Storm," lasted only five days (100 hours).
76. Ole R. Holsti, "Content Analysis," in The Handbook of Social Psychology (vol. 2), ed. G. Lindzey and Elliot Aronson (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1968), 596-692.
77. Guido H. Stempel III and Bruce H. Wesley, eds., Research Methods in Mass Communication (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1989).
78. Intercoder reliability ratings across dependent measures were: for the overall tone of coverage (n = 120): coder pair 1, .93, and pair 2 .96; for trust of troops (n = 80): coder pair 1, .875, and pair 2, .96; and for episodic framing: coder pairs 1 (n = 10) and 2 (n = 11), 1.0.
79. The measure was developed by Michael Burgoon and colleagues, "An Empirical Test of A Model of Resistance to Persuasion," Human Communication Research 5 (fall 1978): 27-39, and employed in a number of studies of political institutions. For a synthesis, see Patricia Moy and Michael Pfau, With Malice toward All: The Media and Public Confidence in Democratic Institutions (New York: Praeger, 2000).
80. Lawrence R. Wheeless and Janis Grotz, "The Measurement of Trust and Its Relationship to Self-Disclosure," Human Communication Research 3 (spring 1977): 250-57.
81. Charles Van Leer and Nick Trujillo, "On Becoming Acquainted: A Longitudinal Study of Social Judgment Processes," Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 3 (1986): 375-92.
82. Knickmeyer, "Military Prepares to Take Journalists into War";
83. Getlin, "The War Beat."
84. Walt Zwirko, "Embedded Journalists' Reporting Questioned," Dallas Morning News, 8 April 2003, pp. 1-3, available at .
85. NewsHour Extra, "Pros and Cons of Embedded Journalism."
86. Iyengar, "Framing Responsibility for Political Issues," and Is Anyone Responsible?
87. Friedman, "The Real-Time War."
88. Kaplan, "The Story of A War," 161.
89. Miskin, Rayner, and Lalic, "Media under Fire," 9.
90. Hensley, "A Theory of the Valenced Other."
91. Soeters, "Culture in Uniformed Organizations," 476. Also, Brightman, "In Bed with the Pentagon."
92. Miskin, Rayner, and Lalic, "Media under Fire," 12.
93. Smith, "The Real-Time War";
94. Carr, "A Nation at War";
95. Ricchiardi, "Close to the Action";NewsHour Extra, "Pros and Cons of Embedded Journalism."
96. Smith, "The Real-Time War," 3.