Legal barriers to implementing recommendations for universal, routine prenatal HIV testing

Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics

Volumn 32, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 137-147

  Wolf, Leslie E ^a,b,f,j,k   Lo, Bernard ^e,f,g,h,i   Gostin, Lawrence O ^a,b,c,d  

^a GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c CDC Collaborating Ctr Law P

^d Institute of Medicine

^e Div of General Internal Medicine

^f UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^g Institute of Medicine   (United States)

^h IOM Board on Health Sciences Policy ^*

ⁱ National Bioethics Advisory Board

^j UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^k HARVARD LAW SCHOOL   (United States)

more..

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTIRETROVIRUS AGENT;

CONFIDENTIALITY; CONTROLLED STUDY; EVALUATION; HEALTH CARE ACCESS; HEALTH CARE POLICY; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; INFORMED CONSENT; LAW; LEGAL ASPECT; PATIENT INFORMATION; PRENATAL CARE; PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS; PRENATAL SCREENING; PROPHYLAXIS; PSYCHOSOCIAL CARE; REVIEW; VERTICAL TRANSMISSION; VIRUS TRANSMISSION; EMPIRICAL APPROACH; FEMALE; GENETICS AND REPRODUCTION; GOVERNMENT; HEALTH CARE AND PUBLIC HEALTH; INSTITUTE OF MEDICINE; INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION; LEGAL APPROACH; MASS SCREENING; ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PREGNANCY; SERODIAGNOSIS; STANDARD; UNITED STATES;

EMPIRICAL APPROACH; GENETICS AND REPRODUCTION; HEALTH CARE AND PUBLIC HEALTH; INSTITUTE OF MEDICINE; LEGAL APPROACH;

AIDS SERODIAGNOSIS; CONFIDENTIALITY; DISCLOSURE; FEMALE; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; INFORMED CONSENT; MASS SCREENING; PRACTICE GUIDELINES; PREGNANCY; PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS; STATE GOVERNMENT; UNITED STATES;

EID: 2942679495     PISSN: 10731105     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-720X.2004.tb00459.x     Document Type: Review

References (81)

1. See, generally, K.P. Beckerman, A.B. Morris, A. Stek, "Mode of Delivery and the Risk of Vertical Transmission of HIV-1," N. Engl. J. Med. 341, no. 3 (1999): 205-6; E.M. Connor, R.S. Sperling, R. Gelber, P. Kiselev, G. Scott, M.J. O'Sullivan, et al, "Reduction of Maternal-Infant Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 with Zidovudine Treatment. Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 076 Study Group," N. Engl. J. Med. 331, no. 18 (1994): 1173-80; L.A. Guay, P. Musoke, T. Fleming, D. Bagenda, M. Allen, C. Nakabiito, et al. "Intrapartum and Neonatal Single-Dose Nevirapine Compared with Zidovudine for Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV-1 in Kampala, Uganda: HIVNET 012 Randomized Trial," Lancet 351, no. 9181 (1999): 795-802; J.P. McGowan, M. Crane, A.A. Wiznia, S. Blum, "Combination Antiretroviral Therapy in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Pregnant Women," Obstetrics & Gynecology 94, no. 5 (1999): 641-6; L.M. Mofenson, J.S. Lambert, E.R. Stiehm, J. Bethel, W.A. Meyer III, J. Whitehouse, et al. "Risk Factors for Perinatal Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 in Women Treated with Zidovudine," N. Engl. J. Med. 341, no. 6 (1999): 385-93; N.A. Wade, G.S. Birkhead, B.L. Warren, T.T. Charbonneau, P.T. French, L. Wang, et al, "Abbreviated Regimens of Zidovudine Prophylaxis and Perinatal Transmission of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus," N. Engl. J. Med. 339, no. 20 (1998): 1409-14.
2. See, generally, K.P. Beckerman, A.B. Morris, A. Stek, "Mode of Delivery and the Risk of Vertical Transmission of HIV-1," N. Engl. J. Med. 341, no. 3 (1999): 205-6; E.M. Connor, R.S. Sperling, R. Gelber, P. Kiselev, G. Scott, M.J. O'Sullivan, et al, "Reduction of Maternal-Infant Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 with Zidovudine Treatment. Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 076 Study Group," N. Engl. J. Med. 331, no. 18 (1994): 1173-80; L.A. Guay, P. Musoke, T. Fleming, D. Bagenda, M. Allen, C. Nakabiito, et al. "Intrapartum and Neonatal Single-Dose Nevirapine Compared with Zidovudine for Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV-1 in Kampala, Uganda: HIVNET 012 Randomized Trial," Lancet 351, no. 9181 (1999): 795-802; J.P. McGowan, M. Crane, A.A. Wiznia, S. Blum, "Combination Antiretroviral Therapy in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Pregnant Women," Obstetrics & Gynecology 94, no. 5 (1999): 641-6; L.M. Mofenson, J.S. Lambert, E.R. Stiehm, J. Bethel, W.A. Meyer III, J. Whitehouse, et al. "Risk Factors for Perinatal Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 in Women Treated with Zidovudine," N. Engl. J. Med. 341, no. 6 (1999): 385-93; N.A. Wade, G.S. Birkhead, B.L. Warren, T.T. Charbonneau, P.T. French, L. Wang, et al, "Abbreviated Regimens of Zidovudine Prophylaxis and Perinatal Transmission of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus," N. Engl. J. Med. 339, no. 20 (1998): 1409-14.
3. See, generally, K.P. Beckerman, A.B. Morris, A. Stek, "Mode of Delivery and the Risk of Vertical Transmission of HIV-1," N. Engl. J. Med. 341, no. 3 (1999): 205-6; E.M. Connor, R.S. Sperling, R. Gelber, P. Kiselev, G. Scott, M.J. O'Sullivan, et al, "Reduction of Maternal-Infant Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 with Zidovudine Treatment. Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 076 Study Group," N. Engl. J. Med. 331, no. 18 (1994): 1173-80; L.A. Guay, P. Musoke, T. Fleming, D. Bagenda, M. Allen, C. Nakabiito, et al. "Intrapartum and Neonatal Single-Dose Nevirapine Compared with Zidovudine for Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV-1 in Kampala, Uganda: HIVNET 012 Randomized Trial," Lancet 351, no. 9181 (1999): 795-802; J.P. McGowan, M. Crane, A.A. Wiznia, S. Blum, "Combination Antiretroviral Therapy in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Pregnant Women," Obstetrics & Gynecology 94, no. 5 (1999): 641-6; L.M. Mofenson, J.S. Lambert, E.R. Stiehm, J. Bethel, W.A. Meyer III, J. Whitehouse, et al. "Risk Factors for Perinatal Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 in Women Treated with Zidovudine," N. Engl. J. Med. 341, no. 6 (1999): 385-93; N.A. Wade, G.S. Birkhead, B.L. Warren, T.T. Charbonneau, P.T. French, L. Wang, et al, "Abbreviated Regimens of Zidovudine Prophylaxis and Perinatal Transmission of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus," N. Engl. J. Med. 339, no. 20 (1998): 1409-14.
4. See, generally, K.P. Beckerman, A.B. Morris, A. Stek, "Mode of Delivery and the Risk of Vertical Transmission of HIV-1," N. Engl. J. Med. 341, no. 3 (1999): 205-6; E.M. Connor, R.S. Sperling, R. Gelber, P. Kiselev, G. Scott, M.J. O'Sullivan, et al, "Reduction of Maternal-Infant Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 with Zidovudine Treatment. Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 076 Study Group," N. Engl. J. Med. 331, no. 18 (1994): 1173-80; L.A. Guay, P. Musoke, T. Fleming, D. Bagenda, M. Allen, C. Nakabiito, et al. "Intrapartum and Neonatal Single-Dose Nevirapine Compared with Zidovudine for Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV-1 in Kampala, Uganda: HIVNET 012 Randomized Trial," Lancet 351, no. 9181 (1999): 795-802; J.P. McGowan, M. Crane, A.A. Wiznia, S. Blum, "Combination Antiretroviral Therapy in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Pregnant Women," Obstetrics & Gynecology 94, no. 5 (1999): 641-6; L.M. Mofenson, J.S. Lambert, E.R. Stiehm, J. Bethel, W.A. Meyer III, J. Whitehouse, et al. "Risk Factors for Perinatal Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 in Women Treated with Zidovudine," N. Engl. J. Med. 341, no. 6 (1999): 385-93; N.A. Wade, G.S. Birkhead, B.L. Warren, T.T. Charbonneau, P.T. French, L. Wang, et al, "Abbreviated Regimens of Zidovudine Prophylaxis and Perinatal Transmission of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus," N. Engl. J. Med. 339, no. 20 (1998): 1409-14.
5. See, generally, K.P. Beckerman, A.B. Morris, A. Stek, "Mode of Delivery and the Risk of Vertical Transmission of HIV-1," N. Engl. J. Med. 341, no. 3 (1999): 205-6; E.M. Connor, R.S. Sperling, R. Gelber, P. Kiselev, G. Scott, M.J. O'Sullivan, et al, "Reduction of Maternal-Infant Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 with Zidovudine Treatment. Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 076 Study Group," N. Engl. J. Med. 331, no. 18 (1994): 1173-80; L.A. Guay, P. Musoke, T. Fleming, D. Bagenda, M. Allen, C. Nakabiito, et al. "Intrapartum and Neonatal Single-Dose Nevirapine Compared with Zidovudine for Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV-1 in Kampala, Uganda: HIVNET 012 Randomized Trial," Lancet 351, no. 9181 (1999): 795-802; J.P. McGowan, M. Crane, A.A. Wiznia, S. Blum, "Combination Antiretroviral Therapy in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Pregnant Women," Obstetrics & Gynecology 94, no. 5 (1999): 641-6; L.M. Mofenson, J.S. Lambert, E.R. Stiehm, J. Bethel, W.A. Meyer III, J. Whitehouse, et al. "Risk Factors for Perinatal Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 in Women Treated with Zidovudine," N. Engl. J. Med. 341, no. 6 (1999): 385-93; N.A. Wade, G.S. Birkhead, B.L. Warren, T.T. Charbonneau, P.T. French, L. Wang, et al, "Abbreviated Regimens of Zidovudine Prophylaxis and Perinatal Transmission of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus," N. Engl. J. Med. 339, no. 20 (1998): 1409-14.
6. See, generally, K.P. Beckerman, A.B. Morris, A. Stek, "Mode of Delivery and the Risk of Vertical Transmission of HIV-1," N. Engl. J. Med. 341, no. 3 (1999): 205-6; E.M. Connor, R.S. Sperling, R. Gelber, P. Kiselev, G. Scott, M.J. O'Sullivan, et al, "Reduction of Maternal-Infant Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 with Zidovudine Treatment. Pediatric AIDS Clinical Trials Group Protocol 076 Study Group," N. Engl. J. Med. 331, no. 18 (1994): 1173-80; L.A. Guay, P. Musoke, T. Fleming, D. Bagenda, M. Allen, C. Nakabiito, et al. "Intrapartum and Neonatal Single-Dose Nevirapine Compared with Zidovudine for Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV-1 in Kampala, Uganda: HIVNET 012 Randomized Trial," Lancet 351, no. 9181 (1999): 795-802; J.P. McGowan, M. Crane, A.A. Wiznia, S. Blum, "Combination Antiretroviral Therapy in Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Infected Pregnant Women," Obstetrics & Gynecology 94, no. 5 (1999): 641-6; L.M. Mofenson, J.S. Lambert, E.R. Stiehm, J. Bethel, W.A. Meyer III, J. Whitehouse, et al. "Risk Factors for Perinatal Transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 in Women Treated with Zidovudine," N. Engl. J. Med. 341, no. 6 (1999): 385-93; N.A. Wade, G.S. Birkhead, B.L. Warren, T.T. Charbonneau, P.T. French, L. Wang, et al, "Abbreviated Regimens of Zidovudine Prophylaxis and Perinatal Transmission of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus," N. Engl. J. Med. 339, no. 20 (1998): 1409-14.
7. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, "Revised Guidelines for HIV Counseling, Testing and Referral and Revised Recommendations for HIV Screening of Pregnant Women," Morbidity Mortality Weekly Report 50 no. RR-19 (2001): 59-86, at 65-71.
8. M.A. Stoto, D.A. Almario, M.C. McCormick, eds., Reducing the Odds: Preventing Perinatal Transmission of HIV in the United States (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1999).
9. American Academy of Pediatrics. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, "Joint Statement of the American Academy of Pediatrics and the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists," Pediatrics 104, no. 1 pt 1 (1999): at 128.
10. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, supra note 2, at 75-77.
11. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, "Advancing HIV Prevention: New Strategies for a Changing Epidemic - United States 2003," Morbidity Mortality Weekly Report, 52, no. 15 (2003): 329-332, at 332.
12. See, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, supra note 2, at 71-72; A. Watson, Reducing Perinatal Transmission, Health Policy Tracking Service, at 〈http://stateserv.hpts. org/hpts2000/issueb2000.nsf/970e745f9e50ddca852564f0007b3abd〉 (last visited 6/16/2000). 2003 Ind. House Enrolled Act 1630, sections 6-11 (2003) (effective 7/1/2003). N.M. Stat. Ann. § 24-2B-5 (2003) (effective 6/30/2003). Washington Administrative Code § 246-100-208 (2003) (effective 7/6/2002).
13. See, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, supra note 2, at 71-72; A. Watson, Reducing Perinatal Transmission, Health Policy Tracking Service, at 〈http://stateserv.hpts. org/hpts2000/issueb2000.nsf/970e745f9e50ddca852564f0007b3abd〉 (last visited 6/16/2000). 2003 Ind. House Enrolled Act 1630, sections 6-11 (2003) (effective 7/1/2003). N.M. Stat. Ann. § 24-2B-5 (2003) (effective 6/30/2003). Washington Administrative Code § 246-100-208 (2003) (effective 7/6/2002).
14. N.M. Stat. Ann., supra note 7.
15. See R. Bayer, Private Acts, Social Consequences: AIDS and the Politics of Public Health (New York: Free Press, 1989): at 101-136.
16. M.A. Stoto, D.A. Almario, M.C. McCormick, supra note 3, at 74-85 & 104-110.
17. Id. At 74-84 (and references therein).
18. A. Roome, J. Hadler, G. Birkhead, S. King, C. Archibald, S. Schrag, A. Lansky, S. Sansom, M. Fowler, I. Onorado, J. Anderson, "HIV Testing Among Pregnant Women - United States and Canada, 1998-2001," Morbidity Mortality Weekly Report 51, no. 45 (2002): 1013-1016.
19. See generally, R.R. Faden, N.E. Kass, M. Powers, "Warrants for Screening Programs: Public, Health, Legal, and Ethical Frameworks," in R.R. Faden, G. Geller, M. Powers, eds., AIDS, Women, and the Next Generation: Towards a Morally Acceptable Public Policy for HIV Testing of Pregnant Women and Newborns (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991): at 3-26; L.O. Gostin, "Immunization, Testing, and Screening: Bodily Integrity," in Public Health Law: Power, Duty, Restraint (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000): 175-201.
20. See generally, R.R. Faden, N.E. Kass, M. Powers, "Warrants for Screening Programs: Public, Health, Legal, and Ethical Frameworks," in R.R. Faden, G. Geller, M. Powers, eds., AIDS, Women, and the Next Generation: Towards a Morally Acceptable Public Policy for HIV Testing of Pregnant Women and Newborns (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991): at 3-26; L.O. Gostin, "Immunization, Testing, and Screening: Bodily Integrity," in Public Health Law: Power, Duty, Restraint (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000): 175-201.
21. M.A. Stoto, D.A. Almario, M.C. McCormick, supra note 3, at 22-25, 85-96, & 113.
22. R.R. Faden, N.E. Kass, M. Powers, supra note 13; L.O. Gostin, supranote 13; M.A. Stoto, D.A. Almario, M.C. McCormick. supra note 3, at 24.
23. M.A. Stoto, D.A. Almario, M.C. McCormick, supra note 3, at 22-25, 85-96, & 113.
24. M.A. Stoto, D.A. Almario, M.C. McCormick, supra note 3, at 74-84; A. Roome, et al, supra note 12.
25. See generally, L.O. Gostin, C. Feldblum, D.W. Webber, "Disability Discrimination in America: HIV/AIDS and Other Health Conditions," JAMA 281, no. 8 (1999):745-52; "Girl Says Store Fired her Because She's HIV Positive," The Seattle Times, Sept. 3, 2001, at Sect. A4; "EEOC Raps Hospital" AIDS Policy and Law 13, no. 2 (1998): at 12; Bragdon v. Abbott, 524 U.S. 624 (1998); "Study Demonstrates that AIDS Stigma Remains Potent," AIDS Policy and Law 15, no.22 (2000): at 5.
26. See generally, L.O. Gostin, C. Feldblum, D.W. Webber, "Disability Discrimination in America: HIV/AIDS and Other Health Conditions," JAMA 281, no. 8 (1999):745-52; "Girl Says Store Fired her Because She's HIV Positive," The Seattle Times, Sept. 3, 2001, at Sect. A4; "EEOC Raps Hospital" AIDS Policy and Law 13, no. 2 (1998): at 12; Bragdon v. Abbott, 524 U.S. 624 (1998); "Study Demonstrates that AIDS Stigma Remains Potent," AIDS Policy and Law 15, no.22 (2000): at 5.
27. See generally, L.O. Gostin, C. Feldblum, D.W. Webber, "Disability Discrimination in America: HIV/AIDS and Other Health Conditions," JAMA 281, no. 8 (1999):745-52; "Girl Says Store Fired her Because She's HIV Positive," The Seattle Times, Sept. 3, 2001, at Sect. A4; "EEOC Raps Hospital" AIDS Policy and Law 13, no. 2 (1998): at 12; Bragdon v. Abbott, 524 U.S. 624 (1998); "Study Demonstrates that AIDS Stigma Remains Potent," AIDS Policy and Law 15, no.22 (2000): at 5.
28. See generally, L.O. Gostin, C. Feldblum, D.W. Webber, "Disability Discrimination in America: HIV/AIDS and Other Health Conditions," JAMA 281, no. 8 (1999):745-52; "Girl Says Store Fired her Because She's HIV Positive," The Seattle Times, Sept. 3, 2001, at Sect. A4; "EEOC Raps Hospital" AIDS Policy and Law 13, no. 2 (1998): at 12; Bragdon v. Abbott, 524 U.S. 624 (1998); "Study Demonstrates that AIDS Stigma Remains Potent," AIDS Policy and Law 15, no.22 (2000): at 5.
29. See generally, L.O. Gostin, C. Feldblum, D.W. Webber, "Disability Discrimination in America: HIV/AIDS and Other Health Conditions," JAMA 281, no. 8 (1999):745-52; "Girl Says Store Fired her Because She's HIV Positive," The Seattle Times, Sept. 3, 2001, at Sect. A4; "EEOC Raps Hospital" AIDS Policy and Law 13, no. 2 (1998): at 12; Bragdon v. Abbott, 524 U.S. 624 (1998); "Study Demonstrates that AIDS Stigma Remains Potent," AIDS Policy and Law 15, no.22 (2000): at 5.
30. See generally, K.H. Rothenberg, S.J. Paskey, M.M. Reuland, S.I. Zimmerman, R.L. North, "Domestic Violence and Partner Notification: Implications for Treatment and Counseling of Women with HIV," Journal of the American Medical Women's Association 50, no. 3-4 (1995): 87-93; K. Rothenberg, S. Paskey, "The Risk of Domestic Violence and Women with HIV Infection: Implications for Partner Notification, Public Policy, and the Law," American Journal of Public Health 85, no. 11 (1995): at 1569-70; S. Maman, J. Cambell, M. Sweat, A. Gielen, "The Intersections of HIV and Violence: Directions for Future Research and Interventions," Social Science & Medicine 50, no. 459-78 (2000): at 474-5; A. Helton, J. McFarlane, E. Anderson, "Battered and Pregnant: A Prevalence Study," American Journal of Public Health 77, no. 10 (1987): at 1337-9; S. Zierler, W. Cunningham, et. al., "Violence Victimization after HIV Infection in a US Probability Sample of Adult Patients in Primary Care," American Journal of Public Health 90, no. 2 (2000): at 208-15; R.L. North, K.H. Rothenberg, "Partner Notification and the Thereat of Domestic Violence Against Women with HIV Infection," N. Engl. J. Med. 329, no. 16 (1993): at 1194-6; A. Gielen, P. O'Campo, R. Faclen, A. Eke, "Women's Disclosure of HIV Status: Experiences of Mistreatment and Violence in an Urban Setting," Women & Health 25, no. 3 (1997): at 19-31.
31. See generally, K.H. Rothenberg, S.J. Paskey, M.M. Reuland, S.I. Zimmerman, R.L. North, "Domestic Violence and Partner Notification: Implications for Treatment and Counseling of Women with HIV," Journal of the American Medical Women's Association 50, no. 3-4 (1995): 87-93; K. Rothenberg, S. Paskey, "The Risk of Domestic Violence and Women with HIV Infection: Implications for Partner Notification, Public Policy, and the Law," American Journal of Public Health 85, no. 11 (1995): at 1569-70; S. Maman, J. Cambell, M. Sweat, A. Gielen, "The Intersections of HIV and Violence: Directions for Future Research and Interventions," Social Science & Medicine 50, no. 459-78 (2000): at 474-5; A. Helton, J. McFarlane, E. Anderson, "Battered and Pregnant: A Prevalence Study," American Journal of Public Health 77, no. 10 (1987): at 1337-9; S. Zierler, W. Cunningham, et. al., "Violence Victimization after HIV Infection in a US Probability Sample of Adult Patients in Primary Care," American Journal of Public Health 90, no. 2 (2000): at 208-15; R.L. North, K.H. Rothenberg, "Partner Notification and the Thereat of Domestic Violence Against Women with HIV Infection," N. Engl. J. Med. 329, no. 16 (1993): at 1194-6; A. Gielen, P. O'Campo, R. Faclen, A. Eke, "Women's Disclosure of HIV Status: Experiences of Mistreatment and Violence in an Urban Setting," Women & Health 25, no. 3 (1997): at 19-31.
32. See generally, K.H. Rothenberg, S.J. Paskey, M.M. Reuland, S.I. Zimmerman, R.L. North, "Domestic Violence and Partner Notification: Implications for Treatment and Counseling of Women with HIV," Journal of the American Medical Women's Association 50, no. 3-4 (1995): 87-93; K. Rothenberg, S. Paskey, "The Risk of Domestic Violence and Women with HIV Infection: Implications for Partner Notification, Public Policy, and the Law," American Journal of Public Health 85, no. 11 (1995): at 1569-70; S. Maman, J. Cambell, M. Sweat, A. Gielen, "The Intersections of HIV and Violence: Directions for Future Research and Interventions," Social Science & Medicine 50, no. 459-78 (2000): at 474-5; A. Helton, J. McFarlane, E. Anderson, "Battered and Pregnant: A Prevalence Study," American Journal of Public Health 77, no. 10 (1987): at 1337-9; S. Zierler, W. Cunningham, et. al., "Violence Victimization after HIV Infection in a US Probability Sample of Adult Patients in Primary Care," American Journal of Public Health 90, no. 2 (2000): at 208-15; R.L. North, K.H. Rothenberg, "Partner Notification and the Thereat of Domestic Violence Against Women with HIV Infection," N. Engl. J. Med. 329, no. 16 (1993): at 1194-6; A. Gielen, P. O'Campo, R. Faclen, A. Eke, "Women's Disclosure of HIV Status: Experiences of Mistreatment and Violence in an Urban Setting," Women & Health 25, no. 3 (1997): at 19-31.
33. See generally, K.H. Rothenberg, S.J. Paskey, M.M. Reuland, S.I. Zimmerman, R.L. North, "Domestic Violence and Partner Notification: Implications for Treatment and Counseling of Women with HIV," Journal of the American Medical Women's Association 50, no. 3-4 (1995): 87-93; K. Rothenberg, S. Paskey, "The Risk of Domestic Violence and Women with HIV Infection: Implications for Partner Notification, Public Policy, and the Law," American Journal of Public Health 85, no. 11 (1995): at 1569-70; S. Maman, J. Cambell, M. Sweat, A. Gielen, "The Intersections of HIV and Violence: Directions for Future Research and Interventions," Social Science & Medicine 50, no. 459-78 (2000): at 474-5; A. Helton, J. McFarlane, E. Anderson, "Battered and Pregnant: A Prevalence Study," American Journal of Public Health 77, no. 10 (1987): at 1337-9; S. Zierler, W. Cunningham, et. al., "Violence Victimization after HIV Infection in a US Probability Sample of Adult Patients in Primary Care," American Journal of Public Health 90, no. 2 (2000): at 208-15; R.L. North, K.H. Rothenberg, "Partner Notification and the Thereat of Domestic Violence Against Women with HIV Infection," N. Engl. J. Med. 329, no. 16 (1993): at 1194-6; A. Gielen, P. O'Campo, R. Faclen, A. Eke, "Women's Disclosure of HIV Status: Experiences of Mistreatment and Violence in an Urban Setting," Women & Health 25, no. 3 (1997): at 19-31.
34. See generally, K.H. Rothenberg, S.J. Paskey, M.M. Reuland, S.I. Zimmerman, R.L. North, "Domestic Violence and Partner Notification: Implications for Treatment and Counseling of Women with HIV," Journal of the American Medical Women's Association 50, no. 3-4 (1995): 87-93; K. Rothenberg, S. Paskey, "The Risk of Domestic Violence and Women with HIV Infection: Implications for Partner Notification, Public Policy, and the Law," American Journal of Public Health 85, no. 11 (1995): at 1569-70; S. Maman, J. Cambell, M. Sweat, A. Gielen, "The Intersections of HIV and Violence: Directions for Future Research and Interventions," Social Science & Medicine 50, no. 459-78 (2000): at 474-5; A. Helton, J. McFarlane, E. Anderson, "Battered and Pregnant: A Prevalence Study," American Journal of Public Health 77, no. 10 (1987): at 1337-9; S. Zierler, W. Cunningham, et. al., "Violence Victimization after HIV Infection in a US Probability Sample of Adult Patients in Primary Care," American Journal of Public Health 90, no. 2 (2000): at 208-15; R.L. North, K.H. Rothenberg, "Partner Notification and the Thereat of Domestic Violence Against Women with HIV Infection," N. Engl. J. Med. 329, no. 16 (1993): at 1194-6; A. Gielen, P. O'Campo, R. Faclen, A. Eke, "Women's Disclosure of HIV Status: Experiences of Mistreatment and Violence in an Urban Setting," Women & Health 25, no. 3 (1997): at 19-31.
35. See generally, K.H. Rothenberg, S.J. Paskey, M.M. Reuland, S.I. Zimmerman, R.L. North, "Domestic Violence and Partner Notification: Implications for Treatment and Counseling of Women with HIV," Journal of the American Medical Women's Association 50, no. 3-4 (1995): 87-93; K. Rothenberg, S. Paskey, "The Risk of Domestic Violence and Women with HIV Infection: Implications for Partner Notification, Public Policy, and the Law," American Journal of Public Health 85, no. 11 (1995): at 1569-70; S. Maman, J. Cambell, M. Sweat, A. Gielen, "The Intersections of HIV and Violence: Directions for Future Research and Interventions," Social Science & Medicine 50, no. 459-78 (2000): at 474-5; A. Helton, J. McFarlane, E. Anderson, "Battered and Pregnant: A Prevalence Study," American Journal of Public Health 77, no. 10 (1987): at 1337-9; S. Zierler, W. Cunningham, et. al., "Violence Victimization after HIV Infection in a US Probability Sample of Adult Patients in Primary Care," American Journal of Public Health 90, no. 2 (2000): at 208-15; R.L. North, K.H. Rothenberg, "Partner Notification and the Thereat of Domestic Violence Against Women with HIV Infection," N. Engl. J. Med. 329, no. 16 (1993): at 1194-6; A. Gielen, P. O'Campo, R. Faclen, A. Eke, "Women's Disclosure of HIV Status: Experiences of Mistreatment and Violence in an Urban Setting," Women & Health 25, no. 3 (1997): at 19-31.
36. See generally, K.H. Rothenberg, S.J. Paskey, M.M. Reuland, S.I. Zimmerman, R.L. North, "Domestic Violence and Partner Notification: Implications for Treatment and Counseling of Women with HIV," Journal of the American Medical Women's Association 50, no. 3-4 (1995): 87-93; K. Rothenberg, S. Paskey, "The Risk of Domestic Violence and Women with HIV Infection: Implications for Partner Notification, Public Policy, and the Law," American Journal of Public Health 85, no. 11 (1995): at 1569-70; S. Maman, J. Cambell, M. Sweat, A. Gielen, "The Intersections of HIV and Violence: Directions for Future Research and Interventions," Social Science & Medicine 50, no. 459-78 (2000): at 474-5; A. Helton, J. McFarlane, E. Anderson, "Battered and Pregnant: A Prevalence Study," American Journal of Public Health 77, no. 10 (1987): at 1337-9; S. Zierler, W. Cunningham, et. al., "Violence Victimization after HIV Infection in a US Probability Sample of Adult Patients in Primary Care," American Journal of Public Health 90, no. 2 (2000): at 208-15; R.L. North, K.H. Rothenberg, "Partner Notification and the Thereat of Domestic Violence Against Women with HIV Infection," N. Engl. J. Med. 329, no. 16 (1993): at 1194-6; A. Gielen, P. O'Campo, R. Faclen, A. Eke, "Women's Disclosure of HIV Status: Experiences of Mistreatment and Violence in an Urban Setting," Women & Health 25, no. 3 (1997): at 19-31.
37. See R.L. North, K.H. Rothenberg, supra note 19; A. Gielen, P. O'Campo, R. Faden, A. Eke, supra note 19.
38. See S. Lawless, S. Kippax, J. Crawford, "Duty, Diseased and Undeserving: The Positioning of HIV Positive Women," Social Science ana Medicine 43, no. 9(1996): at 1371-7; S. Napravnik, R. Royce, E. Walter, W. Lim, "HIV-1 Infected Women and Prenatal Care Utilization: Barriers and Facilitators," AIDS Patient Care and STDs 14, no. 8 (2000): at 411-20; G. Oliva, J. Rienks, M. McDermid, "What High-Risk Women are Telling us about Access to Primary and Reproductive Health Care and HIV Prevention Services," AIDS Education and Prevention 11, no. 6 (1999): at 513-24.
39. See S. Lawless, S. Kippax, J. Crawford, "Duty, Diseased and Undeserving: The Positioning of HIV Positive Women," Social Science ana Medicine 43, no. 9(1996): at 1371-7; S. Napravnik, R. Royce, E. Walter, W. Lim, "HIV-1 Infected Women and Prenatal Care Utilization: Barriers and Facilitators," AIDS Patient Care and STDs 14, no. 8 (2000): at 411-20; G. Oliva, J. Rienks, M. McDermid, "What High-Risk Women are Telling us about Access to Primary and Reproductive Health Care and HIV Prevention Services," AIDS Education and Prevention 11, no. 6 (1999): at 513-24.
40. See S. Lawless, S. Kippax, J. Crawford, "Duty, Diseased and Undeserving: The Positioning of HIV Positive Women," Social Science ana Medicine 43, no. 9(1996): at 1371-7; S. Napravnik, R. Royce, E. Walter, W. Lim, "HIV-1 Infected Women and Prenatal Care Utilization: Barriers and Facilitators," AIDS Patient Care and STDs 14, no. 8 (2000): at 411-20; G. Oliva, J. Rienks, M. McDermid, "What High-Risk Women are Telling us about Access to Primary and Reproductive Health Care and HIV Prevention Services," AIDS Education and Prevention 11, no. 6 (1999): at 513-24.
41. S. Lawless, S. Kippax, J. Crawford, supra note 21, at 1374.
42. See, e.g., Tenn. Code Ann. § 68-5-703 (2003); Tex. Health & Safety Code § 81.090 (2003); Ark. Stat. Ann. § 20-16-507 (2003); U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, supra note 2, at 75. Also see, N.M. Stat. Ann., supra note 7.
43. 5 M.RS. § 19204-A (2003) [Maine].
44. CRIR14-040-006, Section 3.2 (2003) [Rhode Island].
45. S. Klein, G. Birkhead, G. Wright, "Domestic Violence and HIV/AIDS," American Journal of Public Health 90, no. 10 (2000): 1648; 10 NYCRR 63.3 (2003).
46. Ark. Stat. Ann. § 20-15-905 (2003); 410 ILCS 305/8 (2004); K.R.S. § 214.025 (2003) [Kentucky]; K.R.S. § 214.181 (2003); ORC Ann. 3701.242 (Anderson 2003) [Ohio]; Tex. Health & Safety Code § 81.106 (2004).
47. Code of Ala. § 22-11A-52 (2003).
48. MCLS § 333.5133, MSA § 14.15(5133) (2003) [Michigan]; 5 M.R.S § 19204-A (2003) [Maine]; W.Va. Code § 16-3C-2 (2003); CRIR 14-040-006 (2004); O.C.G.A. § 31-22-9.1 (2003).
49. N.M. Stat. Ann., supra note 7.
50. Ark. Code Ann. § 20-16-507 (2003); Conn. Gen. Stat. § 19a-593 (2003); 16 Del. C. § 1204 (2003): 10A NCAC 41A.0202 (2003); R.I. Gen. Laws § 23-13-19 (2003).
51. Tenn. Code Ann § 68-5-703 (2004); Tex. Health & Safety-Code § 81.090 (2004).
52. Md. HEALTH-GENERAL Code Ann. § 18-338.2(b)(2) (2003).
53. Md. HEALTH-GENERAL Code Ann. § 18-338.2(c) (2003) and Cal Health & Saf Code § 125105 (2004).
54. Md. HEALTH-GENERAL Code Ann, supra, note 34.
55. Ark. Stat. Ann., supra note 18; 5 M.R.S. § 19203 (2003); Md. HEALTH-GENERAL Code Ann. § 18-336 (2003); § 191.699 R.S.Mo. (2003); 18 V.S.A. § 1128 (2003); Wis. Stat. § 252.14 (2003).
56. 42 U.S.C.S. § 12101 et. seq. (2003).
57. See L.O. Gostin, C. Feldblum, D.W. Webber, supra note 18.
58. N.M. Stat. Ann, supra note 7.
59. See generally L.O. Gostin, Power, Duty, Restraint (Berkeley: University of California Press: 2000); L. O. Gostin, "Public Health Law in a New Century: Part: I: Law as a Tool to Advance the Community's Health," JAMA 283, no. 21 (2000): at 2837-41; L.O. Gostin, "Public Health Law in a New Century: Part II: Public-Health Powers and Limits," JAMA 283, no. 22 (2000): at 2979-84; L.O. Gostin, "Public Health Law in a New Century: Part III: Public Health Regulations: A Systematic Evaluation," JAMA 283, no. 23 (2000): at 3118-22.
60. See generally L.O. Gostin, Power, Duty, Restraint (Berkeley: University of California Press: 2000); L. O. Gostin, "Public Health Law in a New Century: Part: I: Law as a Tool to Advance the Community's Health," JAMA 283, no. 21 (2000): at 2837-41; L.O. Gostin, "Public Health Law in a New Century: Part II: Public-Health Powers and Limits," JAMA 283, no. 22 (2000): at 2979-84; L.O. Gostin, "Public Health Law in a New Century: Part III: Public Health Regulations: A Systematic Evaluation," JAMA 283, no. 23 (2000): at 3118-22.
61. See generally L.O. Gostin, Power, Duty, Restraint (Berkeley: University of California Press: 2000); L. O. Gostin, "Public Health Law in a New Century: Part: I: Law as a Tool to Advance the Community's Health," JAMA 283, no. 21 (2000): at 2837-41; L.O. Gostin, "Public Health Law in a New Century: Part II: Public-Health Powers and Limits," JAMA 283, no. 22 (2000): at 2979-84; L.O. Gostin, "Public Health Law in a New Century: Part III: Public Health Regulations: A Systematic Evaluation," JAMA 283, no. 23 (2000): at 3118-22.
62. See generally L.O. Gostin, Power, Duty, Restraint (Berkeley: University of California Press: 2000); L. O. Gostin, "Public Health Law in a New Century: Part: I: Law as a Tool to Advance the Community's Health," JAMA 283, no. 21 (2000): at 2837-41; L.O. Gostin, "Public Health Law in a New Century: Part II: Public-Health Powers and Limits," JAMA 283, no. 22 (2000): at 2979-84; L.O. Gostin, "Public Health Law in a New Century: Part III: Public Health Regulations: A Systematic Evaluation," JAMA 283, no. 23 (2000): at 3118-22.
63. S. Klein, G. Birkhead, G. Wright, supra note 26.
64. See, e.g., NY CLS Pub Health § 2781(3) (2003) ("information about discrimination problems that disclosure of test result could cause") and COMAR 10.18.08.06(b)(3)(1) (2003) ("That an individual with a positive HIV test result could experience: (i) Emotional discomfort; and (ii) If the test result becomes known in the community, discrimination in work, personal relationships, and insurance").
65. See L.B. McCullough and FA Chervenak, "General Strategies for Preventing Ethical Conflict and Crisis in Clinical Practices" in Ethics in Obstetrics and Gynecology, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), at 133-165 and 198-200. B. Lo, "Ethical Issues in Obstetrics and Gynecology," in Resolving Ethical Dilemmas: A Guide for Clinicians (Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins 2000), at 302-309.
66. See L.B. McCullough and FA Chervenak, "General Strategies for Preventing Ethical Conflict and Crisis in Clinical Practices" in Ethics in Obstetrics and Gynecology, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), at 133-165 and 198-200. B. Lo, "Ethical Issues in Obstetrics and Gynecology," in Resolving Ethical Dilemmas: A Guide for Clinicians (Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins 2000), at 302-309.
67. See generally U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, supra note 2; K.H. Rothenberg, S.J. Paskey, M.M. Reuland, S.I. Zimmerman, R.L. North, supra note 19; M.A. Stoto, D.A. Almario, M.C. McCormick, supranote 3; L.O. Gostin, supra note 13; S. Maman, J. Campbell, M. Sweate, A. Gielen, supra 19; R.L. North, K.H. Rothenberg, supra note 19.
68. See generally S. Lawless, S. Kippax, J. Crawford, supra note 21; S. Napravnik, R. Royce, E. Walter, W. Lim, supra note 21; G. Oliva, J. Rienks, M. McDermid. supra note 21; Ferguson v. Charleston, 121 S. Ct. 1281 (2001); D. Roberts, "Punishing Drug Addicts who have Babies: Women of Color, Equality, and the Right of Privacy," Harvard Law Review 104, no. 7 (1991): 1419-82.
69. See generally S. Lawless, S. Kippax, J. Crawford, supra note 21; S. Napravnik, R. Royce, E. Walter, W. Lim, supra note 21; G. Oliva, J. Rienks, M. McDermid. supra note 21; Ferguson v. Charleston, 121 S. Ct. 1281 (2001); D. Roberts, "Punishing Drug Addicts who have Babies: Women of Color, Equality, and the Right of Privacy," Harvard Law Review 104, no. 7 (1991): 1419-82.
70. Md. HEALTH-GENERAL Code Ann, supra note 33.
71. M.A. Stoto, D.A. Almario, M.C. McCormick, supra note 3, at 110-111.
72. Sohini Sengupta, personal communication regarding unpublished research results.
73. Bragdon v. Abbott, supra note 18.
74. Lesley v. Chie, 250 F.3d 47 (2001), at 53.
75. Id., at 51.
76. See, e.g., L.O. Gostin, C. Feldblum, D.W. Webber, supra 18; Bragdon v. Abbott, supra note 18.
77. See, e.g., Dept. of Social Servs. v. Carraher (In re John T.), 538 N.W.2d 761, (1995) 762 & 765-766; Doe v. Div. of Youth & Family Servs., 148 F.Supp.2d 462, (2001) at 472-473.
78. Md. HEALTH-GENERAL Code Ann, supra note 33.
79. See generally K.H. Rothenberg, S.J. Paskey, M.M. Reuland, S.I. Zimmerman, R.L. North, supra note 19; K. Rothenberg, S. Paskey, supra note 19; A. Helton, J. McFarlane, E. Anderson, supra note 19; S. Klein, G. Birkhead, G. Wright, supra note 26.
80. 42 USCS § 300ff-27a (2002).
81. See, e.g., Cal. Health & Safety Code § 121015 (2004); O.C.G.A. § 24-9-47 (2003); H.R.S. § 325.101 (2003); and Md. Health & General Code Ann. § 18-337 (2003).