Regionalism in Central Asia: New geopolitics, old regional order

International Affairs

Volumn 80, Issue 3, 2004, Pages

  Bohr, Annette ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 2942679271     PISSN: 00205850     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2346.2004.00394.x     Document Type: Review

References (73)

1. For the purposes of this article 'Central Asia' refers to the five post-Soviet states of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, although this configuration represents only one narrow definition of the region.
2. For an excellent survey of the origins and main directions of the Central Asian Union and the Central Asian Economic Union, see N. A. Ushakova, 'Tsentral'noaziatskoe ekonomicheskoe soobshchestvo', in Protsessy integratsii na postsovetskom postranstve: tendentsii i protivorechiia (Moscow: Rossiiskaia akademiia nauk, Institut mezhdunarodnykh ekonomicheskikh i politicheskikh issledovanii, 2001).
3. Despite the presidents of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan looking favourably on Tajikistan's candidacy, President Karimov of Uzbekistan succeeded in removing the issue of Tajikistan's joining the CAU from the agenda in 1994 on the grounds of the country's relative poverty and instability. However, as relations between Uzbekistan and Tajikistan improved in 1998, President Karimov reversed his stance on the matter.
4. Natalia Ushakova, 'Central Asian cooperation: toward transformation', Central Asia and the Caucasus 21: 3, 2003, p. 122.
5. Iu. V. Shishkov, Integratsionnye protsessy na poroge XXI veka: pochemu ne integriruiutsia strany SNG (Moscow: III tysiacheletie, 2001), p. 124.
6. For more information on water issues in Central Asia, see Stuart Horsman, 'Water in Central Asia: regional cooperation or conflict?', in Roy Allison and Lena Jonson, eds, Central Asian security (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 2001), pp. 69-94.
7. 'Kazakh president differs with Uzbek head over Eurasian Economic Community', BBC Monitoring, Inside Central Asia, 4 June 2001. The EAEC is the only regional organization within the CIS to have adopted a system of weighted voting, whereby the number of votes accorded to each member state is in direct proportion to that state's fixed share of membership dues. However, within the organization's highest body, the Inter-State Council, each member state has only one vote and decisions are taken by consensus. L. Muzaparova, 'Mesto i rol' regional'nykh organizatsii v novykh usloviiakh', in Tsentral'naia Aziia v sisteme global'nykh otnoshenii, sbornik materialov konferentsii (Almaty: Kazakhstanskii institut strategicheskikh issledovanii pri Presidente Respubliki Kazakhstan, 2002), p. 187.
8. 'Kazakh president differs with Uzbek head over Eurasian Economic Community', BBC Monitoring, Inside Central Asia, 4 June 2001. The EAEC is the only regional organization within the CIS to have adopted a system of weighted voting, whereby the number of votes accorded to each member state is in direct proportion to that state's fixed share of membership dues. However, within the organization's highest body, the Inter-State Council, each member state has only one vote and decisions are taken by consensus. L. Muzaparova, 'Mesto i rol' regional'nykh organizatsii v novykh usloviiakh', in Tsentral'naia Aziia v sisteme global'nykh otnoshenii, sbornik materialov konferentsii (Almaty: Kazakhstanskii institut strategicheskikh issledovanii pri Presidente Respubliki Kazakhstan, 2002), p. 187.
9. A prominent reason for Uzbekistan's decision not to rejoin the CST resulted from the periodic difficulties it experienced in acquiring military hardware from Russia. See Annette Bohr, 'Regional cooperation in Central Asia: mission impossible?', Helsinki Monitor 14: 3, 2003, p. 256.
10. For more information on the GUUAM grouping, see Roy Allison, 'Regionalism, regional structures and security management in Central Asia', in this issue of International Affairs.
11. 'Uzbekistan to remain in GUUAM regional alliance', BBC Monitoring, Inside Central Asia, 25 May 2003.
12. Dmitri Trofimov, 'Shanghai process: from the "Five" to the Cooperation Organization', Central Asia and the Caucasus 2: 14, 2002, p. 88.
13. For more information on most of these groupings, see Roy Allison, 'Structures and frameworks for security policy cooperation in Central Asia', in Roy Allison and Lena Jonson, eds, Central Asian security (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 2001), pp. 219-46; Shirin Akiner, 'Regional cooperation in Central Asia', in Patrick Hardouin, Reiner Weichhardt and Peter Sutcliffe, eds, Economic developments and reforms in cooperation partner countries: the interrelationship between regional economic cooperation, security and stability (Brussels: NATO Economics Directorate, 2001), pp. 187-208.
14. For more information on most of these groupings, see Roy Allison, 'Structures and frameworks for security policy cooperation in Central Asia', in Roy Allison and Lena Jonson, eds, Central Asian security (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 2001), pp. 219-46; Shirin Akiner, 'Regional cooperation in Central Asia', in Patrick Hardouin, Reiner Weichhardt and Peter Sutcliffe, eds, Economic developments and reforms in cooperation partner countries: the interrelationship between regional economic cooperation, security and stability (Brussels: NATO Economics Directorate, 2001), pp. 187-208.
15. At a meeting in Moscow in May 2002, Presidents Bush and Putin identified areas for cooperation to advance regional security in Central Asia.
16. 'Reshaiushchuiu rol' sygrali sshA', Kommersant, 6 April 2002.
17. The new anti-terrorism centre officially opened in Tashkent in March 2004.
18. 'Grigorii Rapota, general'nyi sekretar' EvrAzES: My drug drugu stall blizhe', Parlamentskaia gazeta, 5 Feb. 2004.
19. Rafel Ultanbaev, 'What unites the EurAsEC countries,' Central Asia and the Caucasus 3: 23, 2003, p. 138.
20. '"Starshego brata" sdali za milliard dollarov', Nezavisimoe voennoe obozrenie, 8 Feb. 2002. For more information on US aid to Central Asia, see S. Neil MacFarlane, 'The United States and regionalism in Central Asia', in this issue of International Affairs.
21. '"Starshego brata" sdali za milliard dollarov', Nezavisimoe voennoe obozrenie, 8 Feb. 2002. For more information on US aid to Central Asia, see S. Neil MacFarlane, 'The United States and regionalism in Central Asia', in this issue of International Affairs.
22. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, RFE/RL Newsline, 22 Sept., 18 Dec. 2003; RFE/RL Central Asia Report, 25 Feb. 2004.
23. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, RFE/RL Newsline, 22 Sept., 18 Dec. 2003; RFE/RL Central Asia Report, 25 Feb. 2004.
24. 'Emomali Rahmonov: "K nam ne prislushalis' vovremia ...'", Nezavisimaya gazeta, 14 May 2002; RFE/RL Central Asia Report 3: 34, 10 Oct. 2003.
25. 'Emomali Rahmonov: "K nam ne prislushalis' vovremia ...'", Nezavisimaya gazeta, 14 May 2002; RFE/RL Central Asia Report 3: 34, 10 Oct. 2003.
26. 'Interesy SShA i Rossii stalkivaiutsia v Tajikistane', Nezavisimaya gazeta, 12 Aug. 2003; BBC Monitoring, Inside Central Asia, 10 Aug. 2003.
27. 'Interesy SShA i Rossii stalkivaiutsia v Tajikistane', Nezavisimaya gazeta, 12 Aug. 2003; BBC Monitoring, Inside Central Asia, 10 Aug. 2003.
28. 'Vostok - delo tonkoe, ne ne ton'she kupiury . . .', Krasnaya zvezda, 20 Aug. 2003. In July 2002 Russia inaugurated the refurbished Okno optical tracking facility, which is able to detect, monitor and classify objects in space up to a distance of 40,000km. Although work on the tracking facility was begun in the Soviet period, Russia undertook its modernization in 1995. Similar optical tracking systems exist only in Russia and the United States.
29. BBC Monitoring, Inside Central Asia, 22 Feb. 2004.
30. 'Smertel'naia udavka', Zavtra, 23 Oct. 2003; 'Voennye RK i SShA obsuzhdaiut proekt perspektivnogo 5-letnogo plana voennogo sotrudnichestva', Panorama, 14 March 2003.
31. 'Smertel'naia udavka', Zavtra, 23 Oct. 2003; 'Voennye RK i SShA obsuzhdaiut proekt perspektivnogo 5-letnogo plana voennogo sotrudnichestva', Panorama, 14 March 2003.
32. The short distance between the two bases - only 35km - means that Russian specialists can monitor the activities of US troops and also demand that take-off and landing timetables be coordinated with the Russian side in the interests of security.
33. '"Manas" i "Kant" dopolniaiut drug druga', Nezavisimaya gazeta, 12 Sept. 2003. As the CST prohibits the creation of military bases on the territories of its signatory states, the air base at Manas was given the status of a 'special diplomatic mission'.
34. 'Russia seals landmark security pact with Bishkek', BBC Monitoring, Inside Central Asia, no. 455, 2-8 Dec. 2002.
35. Of the US$219.8 million budgeted by all US government agencies for assistance programmes in Uzbekistan in fiscal year 2002, US$79 million was allocated towards security and law enforcement. See fact sheet US assistance to Uzbekistan - fiscal year 2002, Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs, US Department of State, http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/15683.htm. In the same year, US government assistance for security and law enforcement was $41.6 million to Kazakhstan, $37.4 million to Kyrgyzstan, $21.5 million to Tajikistan and $8 to Turkmenistan. See fact sheets US assistance to Kazakhstan - fiscal year 2002, http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/15218.htm; US assistance to the Kyrgyz Republic - fiscal year 2002, http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/15220.htm; US assistance to the Tajikistan - fiscal year 2002, http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fi/15752.htm; US assistance to the Turkmenistan - fiscal year 2002, http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/15221.htm.
36. Of the US$219.8 million budgeted by all US government agencies for assistance programmes in Uzbekistan in fiscal year 2002, US$79 million was allocated towards security and law enforcement. See fact sheet US assistance to Uzbekistan - fiscal year 2002, Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs, US Department of State, http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/15683.htm. In the same year, US government assistance for security and law enforcement was $41.6 million to Kazakhstan, $37.4 million to Kyrgyzstan, $21.5 million to Tajikistan and $8 to Turkmenistan. See fact sheets US assistance to Kazakhstan - fiscal year 2002, http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/15218.htm; US assistance to the Kyrgyz Republic - fiscal year 2002, http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/15220.htm; US assistance to the Tajikistan - fiscal year 2002, http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fi/15752.htm; US assistance to the Turkmenistan - fiscal year 2002, http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/15221.htm.
37. Of the US$219.8 million budgeted by all US government agencies for assistance programmes in Uzbekistan in fiscal year 2002, US$79 million was allocated towards security and law enforcement. See fact sheet US assistance to Uzbekistan - fiscal year 2002, Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs, US Department of State, http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/15683.htm. In the same year, US government assistance for security and law enforcement was $41.6 million to Kazakhstan, $37.4 million to Kyrgyzstan, $21.5 million to Tajikistan and $8 to Turkmenistan. See fact sheets US assistance to Kazakhstan - fiscal year 2002, http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/15218.htm; US assistance to the Kyrgyz Republic - fiscal year 2002, http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/15220.htm; US assistance to the Tajikistan - fiscal year 2002, http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fi/15752.htm; US assistance to the Turkmenistan - fiscal year 2002, http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/15221.htm.
38. Of the US$219.8 million budgeted by all US government agencies for assistance programmes in Uzbekistan in fiscal year 2002, US$79 million was allocated towards security and law enforcement. See fact sheet US assistance to Uzbekistan - fiscal year 2002, Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs, US Department of State, http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/15683.htm. In the same year, US government assistance for security and law enforcement was $41.6 million to Kazakhstan, $37.4 million to Kyrgyzstan, $21.5 million to Tajikistan and $8 to Turkmenistan. See fact sheets US assistance to Kazakhstan - fiscal year 2002, http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/15218.htm; US assistance to the Kyrgyz Republic - fiscal year 2002, http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/15220.htm; US assistance to the Tajikistan - fiscal year 2002, http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fi/15752.htm; US assistance to the Turkmenistan - fiscal year 2002, http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/15221.htm.
39. Of the US$219.8 million budgeted by all US government agencies for assistance programmes in Uzbekistan in fiscal year 2002, US$79 million was allocated towards security and law enforcement. See fact sheet US assistance to Uzbekistan - fiscal year 2002, Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs, US Department of State, http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/15683.htm. In the same year, US government assistance for security and law enforcement was $41.6 million to Kazakhstan, $37.4 million to Kyrgyzstan, $21.5 million to Tajikistan and $8 to Turkmenistan. See fact sheets US assistance to Kazakhstan - fiscal year 2002, http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/15218.htm; US assistance to the Kyrgyz Republic - fiscal year 2002, http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/15220.htm; US assistance to the Tajikistan - fiscal year 2002, http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fi/15752.htm; US assistance to the Turkmenistan - fiscal year 2002, http://www.state.gov/p/eur/rls/fs/15221.htm.
40. Oleksandr Sushko, 'The dark side of integration: ambitions of domination in Russia's backyard', Washington Quarterly 27: 2, Spring 2004, pp. 125-6. Ukraine signed the Yalta documents only after the insertion of a proviso stating that the tenets of the SES must not contradict the Ukrainian constitution, which prohibits any part of that state's sovereignty being delegated to external powers. 'Na dvukh stul'iakh', Parlamentskaia gazeta, 18 Feb. 2004.
41. Oleksandr Sushko, 'The dark side of integration: ambitions of domination in Russia's backyard', Washington Quarterly 27: 2, Spring 2004, pp. 125-6. Ukraine signed the Yalta documents only after the insertion of a proviso stating that the tenets of the SES must not contradict the Ukrainian constitution, which prohibits any part of that state's sovereignty being delegated to external powers. 'Na dvukh stul'iakh', Parlamentskaia gazeta, 18 Feb. 2004.
42. Natalia Ushakova, 'Central Asian cooperation', p. 123.
43. 'Riadom s nami - nikogo', Novoe pokolenie, 6 Dec. 2002.
44. For a discussion of the major theories of regionalism, see Andrew Hurrell, 'Regionalism in theoretical perspective', in Louise Fawcett and Andrew Hurrell, eds, Regionalism in world politics: regional organization and international order (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 37-73; Michael Schulz, Fredrik Söderbaum and Joachim Öjendal, 'A framework for understanding regionalization', in Michael Schulz, Fredrik Soderbaum and Joachim Öjendal, eds, Regionalization in a globalizing world: a comparative perspective on forms, actors and processes (London and New York: Zed, 2001), pp. 1-17.
45. For a discussion of the major theories of regionalism, see Andrew Hurrell, 'Regionalism in theoretical perspective', in Louise Fawcett and Andrew Hurrell, eds, Regionalism in world politics: regional organization and international order (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 37-73; Michael Schulz, Fredrik Söderbaum and Joachim Öjendal, 'A framework for understanding regionalization', in Michael Schulz, Fredrik Soderbaum and Joachim Öjendal, eds, Regionalization in a globalizing world: a comparative perspective on forms, actors and processes (London and New York: Zed, 2001), pp. 1-17.
46. 'Aziatskii potop', Novye izvestiia, 19 Jan. 2004; RFE/RL Central Asia Report 4: 7, 16 Feb. 2004.
47. 'Aziatskii potop', Novye izvestiia, 19 Jan. 2004; RFE/RL Central Asia Report 4: 7, 16 Feb. 2004.
48. Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism reframed: nationhood and the national question in the new Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 79-106.
49. 'The Central Asian states as nationalising regimes', in Graham Smith, Vivien Law, Andrew Wilson, Annette Bohr and Edward Allworth, Nation-building in the post-Soviet borderlands: the politics of national identities (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 139-64.
50. Boris Rumer, ed., Central Asia and the new global economy (London: M. E. Sharpe, 2000), p. 10.
51. Peter Robson, 'The new regionalism and developing countries', Journal of Common Market Studies 31: 3, Sept. 1993, p. 334.
52. David Jay Green, 'Regional co-operation policies in Central Asia', Journal of International Development, no. 13, 2001, pp. 1157-9.
53. For example, Kyrgyzstan has been spending its scarce resources on developing its coal reserves to avoid reliance on Kazakhstan for imports. See Martin Spechler, 'Regional cooperation in Central Asia', Problems of Post-Communism 49:6, Nov./Dec. 2002, p. 46.
54. Ibid., p. 45.
55. Clemens Grafe, Martin Raiser and Toshiaki Sakatsume, 'The importance of good neighbours: regional trade in Central Asia', unpublished conference paper presented to the Caspian Energy Workshop on 'Energy wealth, governance and welfare in the Caspian region', Washington DC, 8-9 May 2003, organised by The National Bureau of Asian Research and Richard M. Auty.
56. Martin S. Spechler, 'Regional cooperation in Central Asia: promises and reality', Anthropology of East Europe Review 17: 2, 1999, pp. 29-30.
57. According to the International Finance Corporation, part of the World Bank group, reported in The Economist, 24 July 2003.
58. For a discussion of the administrative controls undermining Uzbekistan's compliance with the IMF's Article 8 governing convertibility, see The failure of reform in Uzbekistan: ways forward for the international community, International Crisis Group Asia Report no. 76, Osh/Brussels, 11 March 2004, pp. 14-17.
59. Grafe et al., 'The importance of good neighbours: regional trade in Central Asia', p. 117.
60. Jean Lemierre, 'Central Asian economic development and the implications for social and political stability - the role of the EBRD', Helsinki Monitor 14: 3, p. 236.
61. Charles Tripp, 'Regional organizations in the Arab Middle East', in Fawcett and Hurrell, eds, Regionalism in world politics, p. 304.
62. Annette Bohr, 'Independent Turkmenistan: from post-communism to sultanism', in Sally Cummings, ed., Oil, transition and security in Central Asia (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003), pp. 16-20.
63. Malia K. Du Mont, '"Cooperation 2003": style, substance and some surprises', CEF Monthly, the newsletter of the China-Eurasia Forum, Sept. 2003, http://www.chinaeurasia.org/Newsletter.html.
64. Nazarbaev presented the idea of creating the CICA in October 1992 at the 47th Session of the UN General Assembly - the first forum in which Kazakhstan participated as an independent government.
65. BBC Monitoring, Inside Central Asia, 14 Sept. 2003.
66. Hurrell, 'Regionalism in theoretical perspective', p. 59.
67. Senator Sam Nunn, Barnett R. Rubin and Nancy Lubin, Calming the Ferghana valley: development and dialogue in the heart of Central Asia (New York: Century Foundation Press, 1999), p. 21.
68. 'Transnational crime in Central Asia: how big a threat?', paper presented by Tamara Makarenko and Nancy Lubin, Washington DC, 19 Sept. 2003.
69. Edmund Herzig, 'Islam, transnationalism and subregionalism in the CIS', in Renata Dwan and Oleksandr Pavliuk, eds, Building security in the new states of Eurasia: subregional cooperation in the former Soviet space (New York: EastWest Institute, 2000), p. 240.
70. See e.g. Central Asia: Islam and the state, International Crisis Group Asia Report no. 59, Osh/Brussels, 10 July 2003; Yaacov Ro'i, 'Islam, state and society in Central Asia', Helsinki Monitor 14: 3, 2003; and Annette Bohr, Uzbekistan: politics and foreign policy (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1998).
71. See e.g. Central Asia: Islam and the state, International Crisis Group Asia Report no. 59, Osh/Brussels, 10 July 2003; Yaacov Ro'i, 'Islam, state and society in Central Asia', Helsinki Monitor 14: 3, 2003; and Annette Bohr, Uzbekistan: politics and foreign policy (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1998).
72. See e.g. Central Asia: Islam and the state, International Crisis Group Asia Report no. 59, Osh/Brussels, 10 July 2003; Yaacov Ro'i, 'Islam, state and society in Central Asia', Helsinki Monitor 14: 3, 2003; and Annette Bohr, Uzbekistan: politics and foreign policy (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1998).
73. 'Nabliudateli govoriat o rastushchem izoliatsionizme stran Tsentralnoi Azii v otnoshenii drug druga', Panorama, 7 March 2003.