Measures and models of nicotine dependence: Positive reinforcement

Addiction

Volumn 99, Issue SUPPL. 1, 2004, Pages 30-50

  Glautier, Steven ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Addiction; Nicotine; Reinforcement; Reward

Indexed keywords

COCAINE; KETAMINE; NICOTINE; PENTOBARBITAL;

ADDICTION; ASSOCIATION; BEHAVIOR; CONDITIONING; CORRELATION ANALYSIS; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DRUG DEPENDENCE; DRUG USE; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; ECONOMIC ASPECT; EUPHORIA; HUMAN; MEASUREMENT; MEDICAL ASSESSMENT; NONHUMAN; PHENOMENOLOGY; PREDICTION; PSYCHOMOTOR ACTIVITY; REINFORCEMENT; REVIEW; SELF CONTROL; SMOKING; SMOKING CESSATION; STATISTICAL ANALYSIS; STRESS; TECHNIQUE; TOBACCO DEPENDENCE;

DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS; HUMANS; INTERNATIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES; MODELS, THEORETICAL; PREDICTIVE VALUE OF TESTS; PSYCHIATRIC STATUS RATING SCALES; REINFORCEMENT (PSYCHOLOGY); REPRODUCIBILITY OF RESULTS; SELF EFFICACY; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; TOBACCO USE DISORDER;

EID: 2942515953     PISSN: 09652140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2004.00736.x     Document Type: Review

References (140)

1. Abrams, D. B., Monti, P. M., Carey, K. B., Pinto, R. P. & Jacobus, S. I. (1988) Reactivity to smoking cues and relapse: two studies of discriminant validity. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 26, 225-233.
2. Altman, J., Everitt, B. J., Glautier, S., Markou, A., Nutt, D., Oreti, R., Phillips, G. D. & Robbins, T. W. (1996) The biological, social, and clinical bases of drug addiction: commentary and debate. Psychopharmacology, 125, 285-345.
3. American Psychiatric Association (APA) (1994) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edn. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
4. Beach, H. D. (1957) Morphine addiction in rats. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 11, 104-112.
5. Benowitz, N. L., Jacob, P. III, Jones, R. T. & Rosenberg, J. (1982) Interindividual variability in the metabolism and cardiovascular effects of nicotine in man. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 221, 368-372.
6. Berridge, K. C. & Valenstein, E. S. (1991) What psychological process mediates feeding behavior evoked by electrical stimulation of the lateral hypothalamus? Behavioral Neuroscience, 105, 3-14.
7. Bickel, W. K., DeGrandpre, R. J. & Higgins, S. T. (1993) Behavioral economics: a novel experimental approach to the study of drug dependence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 33, 173-192.
8. Bickel, W. K., DeGrandpre, R. J. & Higgins, S. T. (1995) The behavioral economics of concurrent drug reinforcers: a review and reanalysis of drug-self administration research. Psychopharmacology, 118, 250-259.
9. Bickel, W. K., Hughes, J. R., DeGrandpre, R. J., Higgins, S. T. & Rizzuto, P. (1992) Behavioral economics of drug self-administration. IV. The effects of response requirement on the consumption of and interaction between concurrently available coffee and cigarettes. Psychopharmacology, 107, 211-216.
10. Boyle, A. E. L., Smith, B. R., Spivak, K. & Amit, Z. (1994) Voluntary ethanol consumption in rats: the importance of the exposure paradigm in determining final intake outcome. Behavioural Pharmacology, 5, 502-512.
11. Bozarth, M. A. & Wise, R. A. (1981) Intracranial self-administration of morphine into the ventral tegmental area of rats. Life Sciences, 28, 551-555.
12. Bozarth, M. A. & Wise, R. A. (1984) Anatomically distinct opiate receptor fields mediate reward and physical dependence. Science, 244, 516-517.
13. Bradshaw, C. M., Szabadi, E. & Bevan, P. (1976) Behaviour of humans in variable-interval schedules of reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behaviour, 26, 135-141.
14. Brown, R. A., Lewinsohn, P. M., Seeley, J. R. & Wagner, E. F. (1996) Cigarette smoking, major depression, and other psychiatric disorders among adolescents. Journal of The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 1602-1610.
15. Buczek, Y., Le, A. D., Wang, A., Stewart, J. & Shaham, Y. (1999) Stress reinstates nicotine seeking but not sucrose solution seeking in rats. Psychopharmacology, 144, 183-188.
16. Cacioppo, J. T. & Tassinary, L. G. (1990) Psychophysiology and psychophysiological inference. In: Cacioppo, J. T. & Tassinary, L. G., eds. Principles of Psychophysiology: Physical, Social, and Inferential Elements. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
17. Carter, B. L. & Tiffany, S. T. (1999) Meta-analysis of cue reactivity in addiction research. Addiction, 94, 327-340.
18. Carter, B. L. & Tiffany, S. T. (2001) The cue-availability paradigm: the effects of cigarette availability on cue reactivity in smokers. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 9, 183-190.
19. Chiamulera, C., Borgo, C., Falchetto, S., Valerio, E. & Tessaria, M. (1996) Nicotine reinstatement of nicotine self-administration after long-term extinction. Psychopharmacology, 127, 102-107.
20. Chornock, W. M., Stitzer, M. L., Gross, J. & Leischow, S. (1992) Experimental model of smoke re-exposure: effects on relapse. Psychopharmacology, 108, 495-500.
21. Clarke, P. B. & Kumar, R. (1983) The effects of nicotine on locomotor activity in non-tolerant and tolerant rats. British Journal of Pharmacology, 78, 329-337.
22. Colby, S. M., Tiffany, S. T., Shiffman, S. & Niaura, R. S. (2000) Measuring nicotine dependence among youth: a review of available approaches and instruments. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 59, 23-39.
23. Corrigall, W. A. & Coen, K. M. (1989) Nicotine maintains robust self-administration in rats on a limited-access schedule. Psychopharmacology, 99, 473-478.
24. Corrigall, W. A., Coen, K. M. & Adamson, K. L. (1994) Self-administered nicotine activates the mesolimbic dopamine system through the ventral tegmental area. Brain Research, 653, 278-284.
25. Davison, G. & Duffy, M. (1982) Smoking habits of long term survivors of surgery for lung cancer. Thorax, 37, 331-333.
26. Drobes, D. J. & Tiffany, S. T. (1997) Comparisons of smoking urges elicited through imagery and in-vivo cue-exposure. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 15-25.
27. Drummond, D. C., Cooper, T. & Glautier, S. P. (1990) Conditioned learning in alcohol dependence: implications for cue exposure treatment. British Journal of Addiction, 85, 725-743.
28. Drummond, D. C., Tiffany, S. T., Glautier, S. & Remington, R. (1995) Addictive Behaviour: Cue Exposure Theory and Practice. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
29. Edwards, G. (1990) Withdrawal symptoms and alcohol dependence: fruitful mysteries. British Journal of Addiction, 85, 447-461.
30. Edwards, G. E. & Gross, M. M. (1976) Alcohol dependence: provisional description of a clinical syndrome. BMJ, 1, 1058-1061.
31. Eissenberg, T. (2004) Measuring the emergence of tobacco dependence: the contribution of negative reinforcement models. Addiction, 99 (Suppl. 1), 5-29.
32. Eissenberg, T. & Balster, R. L. (2000) Initial tobacco use episodes in children and adolescents: current knowledge, future directions. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 59, S41-S60.
33. Elash, C. A., Tiffany, S. T. & Vrana, S. R. (1995) Manipulation of smoking urges and affect through a brief-imagery procedure: self-report, psychophysiological and startle probe responses. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 3, 156-162.
34. Epping-Jordan, M. P., Watkins, S. S., Koob, G. F. & Markou, A. (1998) Dramatic decreases in brain reward function during nicotine withdrawal. Nature, 393, 76-78.
35. Erb, S., Shaham, Y. & Stewart, J. (1996) Stress reinstates cocaine-seeking behavior after prolonged extinction and a drug-free period. Psychopharmacology, 128, 408-412.
36. Falk, J. L. (1961) Production of polydipsia in normal rats by an intermittent food schedule. Science, 133, 195-196.
37. Falk, J. L., Schuster, C. R., Bigelow, G. E. & Woods, J. H. (1982) Progress and needs in the experimental analysis of drug and alcohol dependence. American Psychologist, 37, 1124-1127.
38. Ferster, C. B. & Skinner, B. F. (1957) Schedules of Reinforcement. Massachusetts: Copley Publishing Group.
39. Fischman, M. W. (1989) Relationship between self-reported drug effects and their reinforcing effects: studies with stimulant drugs. In: Fischman, M. W. & Mello, N. K., eds. Testing for Abuse Liability in Humans, NIDA Research Monograph no. 92, pp. 211-230. Rockville, MD: NIDA Office of Science.
40. Fischman, M. W. & Foltin, R. W. (1991) Utility of subjective effects measurements in assessing abuse liability of drugs in humans. Addiction, 86, 1563-1570.
41. Foltin, R. W. & Fischman, M. W. (1991a) Assessment of abuse liability of stimulant drugs in humans: a methodological survey. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 28, 3-48.
42. Foltin, R. W. & Fischman, M. W. (1991b) Methods for the assessment of abuse liability of psychomotor stimulants and anorectic agents in humans. Addiction, 86, 1633-1640.
43. Foulds, J. (1993) Does nicotine replacement therapy work? Addiction, 88, 1473-1478.
44. Foulds, J., Stapleton, J. A., Bell, N., Swettenham, J., Jarvis, M. J. & Russell, M. A. H. (1997) Mood and physiological effects of subcutaneous nicotine in smokers and never-smokers. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 44, 105-115.
45. Fowler, J. S., Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. J., Pappas, N., Logan, J., MacGregor, R., Alexoff, D., Shea, C., Schlyer, D., Wolf, A. P., Warner, D., Zezulkova, I. & Cilento, R. (1996) Inhibition of monoamine oxidase B in the brains of smokers. Nature, 379, 733-736.
46. Gaiardi, M., Bartoletti, M., Bacchi, A., Gubellini, C., Costa, M. & Babbini, M. (1991) Role of repeated exposure to morphine in determining its affective properties: place and taste conditioning studies in rats. Psychopharmacology, 103, 183-186.
47. Geier, A., Mucha, R. F. & Pauli, P. (2000) Appetitive nature of drug cues confirmed with physiological measures in a model using pictures of smoking. Psychopharmacology, 150, 283-291.
48. Gilbert, D. G. (1995) Smoking: Individual Differences, Psychopathology, and Emotion. Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis.
49. Glassman, A. H. & Koob, G. F. (1996) Psychoactive smoke. Nature, 379, 677-678.
50. Glautier, S. (1999) Do responses to drug-related cues index appetitive or aversive states. Addiction, 94, 346-347.
51. Glautier, S., Clements, K., White, J. A., Taylor, C. & Stolerman, I., (1996) Alcohol and the reward value of smoking. Behavioural Pharmacology, 7, 144-154.
52. Glickman, S. E. & Schiff, B. B. (1967) A biological theory of reinforcement. Psychological Review, 74, 81-109.
53. Goldberg, S. R. (1973) Comparable behavior maintained under fixed-ratio and second order schedules of food presentation, cocaine injection, or d-amphetamine injection in the squirrel monkey. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 186, 18-30.
54. Goldberg, S. R., Hoffmeister, F., Schlichting, U. & Wuttke, W. (1971) Aversive properties of nalorphine and naloxone in morphine dependent rhesus monkeys. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 179, 268-276.
55. Goldberg, S. R., Spealman, R. D. & Goldberg, D. M. (1981) Persistant behavior at high rates maintained by intravenous self-administration of nicotine. Science, 214, 573-575.
56. Goldberg, S. R., Spealman, R. D. & Kelleher, R. T. (1979) Enhancement of drug-seeking behavior by environmental stimuli associated with cocaine or morphine injections. Neuropharamacology, 18, 1015-1017.
57. Griffiths, R. R., Bigelow, G. E. & Henningfield, J. E. (1980) Similarities in animal and human drug taking behavior. In: Mello, N. K., ed. Advances in Substance Abuse, vol. 2, pp. 1-90. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
58. Griffiths, R. R., Wurster, R. M. & Brady, J. V. (1981) Choice between food and heroin: effects of morphine, naloxone, and secobarbital. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behaviour, 35, 335-351.
59. Hanson, H. M., Ivester, C. A. & Morton, B. R. (1979) Nicotine self-administration in rats. In: Kraznegor, N. A., ed. Cigarette Smoking as a Dependence Process, NIDA Research Monograph Series 23, pp. 70-90. Rockville, MD: Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration.
60. Henningfield, J. E. & Keenan, R. M. (1993) Nicotine delivery kinetics and abuse liability. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 743-750.
61. Herrnstein, R. J. (1970) On the Law of Effect. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behaviour, 13, 243-266.
62. Herrnstein, R. J. (1974) Formal properties of the matching law. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 21, 159-164.
63. Herrnstein, R. J. & Prelec, D. (1992a) Melioration. In: Loewenstein, G. & Elster, J., eds. Choice Over Time, pp. 235-263. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
64. Herrnstein, R. J. & Prelec, D. (1992b) A theory of addiction. In: Loewenstein, G. & Elster, J., eds. Choice Over Time, pp. 331-360. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
65. Heyman, G. M. (1996) Resolving the contradictions of addiction. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 19, 561-610.
66. Hirschman, R. S., Leventhal, H. & Glynn, K. (1984) The development of smoking behaviour: conceptualization and supportive cross-sectional survey data. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 14, 184-206.
67. Hodgson, R. (1989) Resisting temptation: a psychological analysis. British Journal of Addiction, 84, 251-257.
68. Hughes, J. R. (1996) The future of smoking cessation therapy in the United States. Addiction, 91, 1797-1802.
69. Hunt, W. A., Barnett, L. W. & Branch, L. G. (1971) Relapse rates in addiction programs. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 27, 455-456.
70. Hursh, S. R. (1993) Behavioral economics of drug self-administration: an introduction. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 33, 165-172.
71. Hursh, S. R., Raslear, T. G., Shurtleff, D., Bauman, R. & Simmons, L. (1988) A cost-benefit analysis of demand for food. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 50, 419-440.
72. Jessor, R. (1987) Problem-behavior theory, psychosocial development, and adolescent problem drinking. British Journal of Addiction, 82, 331-342.
73. Johanson, C. E. & de Wit, H. (1989) The use of choice procedures for assessing the reinforcing properties of drugs in humans. In: Fischman, M. W. & Mello, N. K., eds. Testing for Abuse Liability in Humans, NIDA Research Monograph no. 92, pp. 171-210. Rockville, MD: NIDA Office of Science.
74. Johanson, C. E. & Schuster, C. R. (1981) Animal models of drug self-administration. In: Mello, N. K., ed. Advances in Substance Abuse, vol. 2, pp. 219-297. Greenwich. CT: JAI Press.
75. Kassel, J. D., Shiffman, S., Gnys, M., Paty, J. & Zettlersegal, M. (1994) Psychosocial and personality-differences in chippers and regular smokers. Addictive Behaviors, 19, 565-575.
76. Kassel, J. D., Stroud, L. R. & Peronis, C. A. (2003) Smoking, stress, and negative affect: correlation, causation, and context across stages of smoking. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 270-304.
77. Lam, W., Sze, P. C., Sacks, H. S. & Chalmers, T. C. (1987) Meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials of nicotine chewing gum. Lancet, 2, 27-29.
78. Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M. & Cuthbert, B. N. (1990) Emotion, attention, and the startle reflex. Psychological Review, 97, 377-395.
79. Macenski, M. J. & Meisch, R. A. (1998) Ratio size and cocaine concentration effects on cocaine-reinforced behaviour. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behaviour, 70, 185-202.
80. Marlatt, G. A., Curry, S. & Gordon, J. R. (1988) A longitudinal analysis of unaided smoking cessation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56, 715-720.
81. Marquis, K. L., Webb, M. G. & Moreton, J. E. (1989) Effects of fixed ratio size and dose on phencyclidine self-administration by rats. Psychopharmacology, 97, 179-182.
82. McAuliffe, W. E. & Gordon, R. A. (1974) A test of Lindesmith's theory of addiction: the frequency of euphoria among long-term addicts. American Journal of Sociolgy, 79, 795-840.
83. McAuliffe, W. E., Rohman, M., Feldman, B. & Launer, E. K. (1985) The role of euphoric effects in the opiate addictions of heroin addicts, medical patients, and impaired health professionals. Journal of Drug Issues, 15, 203-224.
84. Meehl, P. E. (1995) Bootstrap taxometrics. American Psychologist, 50, 266-275.
85. Miller, M. (2000) Cigarettes and suicide: a prospective study of 50 000 men. American Journal of Public Health, 90, 768-773.
86. Niaura, R. S., Rosenhow, D. J., Binkoff, J. A., Monti, P. M., Pedraza, M. & Abrams, D. B. (1988) Relevance of cue reactivity to understanding alcohol and smoking relapse. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97, 133-152.
87. Nisbett, R. E. & Wilson, T. D. (1977) Telling more than we can know: verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review, 84, 231-259.
88. O'Brien, C. P. & McLellan, A. T. (1996) Myths about the treatment of addiction. Lancet, 347, 237-240.
89. Olds, J. & Milner, P. (1954) Positive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of the septal area and other regions of rat brain. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 47, 419-427.
90. Piazza, P. V., Deminière, J. M., Le Moal, M. & Simon, H. (1989) Factors that predict individual vulnerability to amphetamine self-administration. Science, 245, 1511-1513.
91. Piazza, P. V. & Le Moal, M. (1998) The role of stress in drug self-administration. Trends in Pharmacological Science, 19, 67-74.
92. Pillitteri, J. L., Kozlowski, J. T., Sweeney, C. T. & Heatherton, T. F. (1997) Individual differences in the subjective effects of the first cigarette of the day: a self-report method for studying tolerance. Experimental and Clinical Psychology, 5, 83-90.
93. Pomerleau, C. S. & Pomerleau, O. F. (1992) Euphoriant effects of nicotine in smokers. Psychopharmacology, 108, 460-465.
94. Pomerleau, O. F., Pomerleau, C. S. & Namenek, R. J. (1998) Early experiences with tobacco among women smokers, ex-smokers, and never-smokers. Addiction, 93, 595-599.
95. Postma, P., Kumari, V., Sharma, T., Hines, M. & Gray, J. A. (2001) Startle response during smoking and 24 h after withdrawal predicts successful smoking cessation. Psychopharmacology, 156, 360-367.
96. Powell, J., Gray, J. A., Bradley, B. P., Kasvikis, Y., Strang, J., Barrat, L. & Marks, I. (1990) The effects of exposure to drug-related cues in detoxified opiate addicts: a theoretical review and some new data. Addictive Behaviours, 15, 339-345.
97. Rachlin, H. (1995) Self-control: beyond commitment. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 18, 109-159.
98. Rachlin, H. & Raineri, A. (1992) Irrationality, impulsiveness, and selfishness as discount reversal effects. In: Loewenstein, G. & Elster, J., eds. Choice Over Time, pp. 93-118. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
99. Robbins, T. W. & Everitt, B. J. (1992) Functions of dopamine in the dorsal and ventral striatum. Seminars in the Neurosciences, 4, 119-127.
100. Robinson, T. E. & Berridge, K. C. (1993) The neural basis of drug craving: an incentive-sensitization theory of addiction. Brain Research Reviews, 18, 247-291.
101. Rose, J. E., Behm, F. M. & Levin, E. D. (1993) Role of nicotine dose and sensory cues in the regulation of smoke intake. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior, 44, 891-900.
102. Rose, J. E. & Corrigall, W. A. (1997) Nicotine self-administration in animals and humans: similarities and differences. Psychopharmacology, 130, 28-40.
103. Russell, M. A. H. (1974) The classification of smoking by factorial structure of motives. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 137, 313-346.
104. Russell, M. A. H. (1990) The nicotine trap: a 40-year sentence for four cigarettes. British Journal of Addiction, 85, 293-300.
105. Samson, H. H., Tolliver, G. A. & Roehrs, T. A. (1983) Ethanol reinforced responding in the rat: relation of ethanol introduction to later ethanol responding. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 18, 895-900.
106. Sarno, L. (1995) Smoking behaviour of women after diagnosis with lung cancer. Image - Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 27, 35-41.
107. Schultz, W. (1992) Activity of dopamine neurons in the behaving primate. Seminars in the Neurosciences, 4, 129-138.
108. Schuster, C. R. (1990) Drug seeking behavior: implications for theories of drug dependence. In: Edwards, G. & Lader, M., eds. The Nature of Drug Dependence, pp. 171-194. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
109. Schuster, C. R. & Johanson, C. E. (1981) An analysis of drug-seeking behavior in animals. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 5, 315-323.
110. Schuster, C. R. & Woods, J. H. (1968) The conditioned reinforcing effects of stimuli associated with morphine injections. International Journal of Addictions, 3, 223-230.
111. Shaham, Y., Adamson, L. K., Grocki, S. & Corrigall, W. A. (1997) Reinstatement and spontaneous recovery of nicotine seeking in rats. Psychopharmacology, 130, 396-403.
112. Shaham, Y., Erb, S. & Stewart, J. (2000) Stress-induced relapse to heroin and cocaine seeking in rats: a review. Brain Research Review, 33, 13-33.
113. Shaham, Y. & Stewart, J. (1995) Stress reinstates heroin-seeking in drug-free animals: an effect mimicking heroin, not withdrawal. Psychopharmacology, 119, 334-341.
114. Sher, K. J. & Trull, T. J. (1996) Methodological issues in psychopathology research. Annual Review of Psychology, 47, 371-400.
115. Sherwood, N. (1993) Effects of nicotine on human psychomotor performance. Human Psychopharmacology, 8, 155-184.
116. Shiffman, S. (1989) Tobacco chippers - individual-differences in tobacco dependence. Psychopharmacology, 4, 539-547.
117. Slifer, B. L. & Balster, R. L. (1985) Intravenous self-administration of nicotine - with and without schedule-induction. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behaviour, 22, 61-69.
118. Soria, R., Stapleton, J. M., Gilson, S. F., Sampson-Cone, A., Henningfield, J. E. & London, E. D. (1996) Subjective and cardiovascular effects of intravenous nicotine in smokers and non-smokers. Psychopharmacology, 128, 221-226.
119. Stewart, J., de Wit, H. & Eikelboom, R. (1984) Role of unconditioned and conditioned drug effects in the self-administration of opiates and stimulants. Psychological Review, 91, 251-268.
120. Stolerman, I. P. & Jarvis, M. J. (1995) The scientific case that nicotine is addictive. Psychopharmacology, 117, 2-10.
121. Taylor, J. R. & Robbins, T. W. (1984) Enhanced behavioural control by conditioned reinforcers following microinjections of d-amphetamine into the nucleus accumbens. Psychopharmacology, 84, 405-412.
122. Thompson, T. & Schuster, C. R. (1968) Behavioral Pharmacology, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc.
123. Tiffany, S. T. (1990) A cognitive model of drug urges and drug-use behavior: the role of automatic and non-automatic processes. Psychological Review, 97, 147-168.
124. Tiffany, S. T. & Drobes, D. J. (1990) Imagery and smoking urges: the manipulation of affective content. Addictive Behaviors, 15, 531-539.
125. Toates, F. (1986) Motivational Systems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
126. Treit, D. & Berridge, K. C. (1990) A comparison of benzodiazepine, serotonin, and dopamine agents in the taste-reactivity paradigm. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior, 37, 451-465.
127. de Villiers, P. A. & Herrnstein, R. J. (1976) Toward a law of response strength. Psychological Bulletin, 83, 1131-1153.
128. Wakefield, J. C. (1997) Diagnosing DSM-IV - part I: DSM-IV and the concept of disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 633-649.
129. Wallström, M., Nilsson, F. & Hirsch, J. M. (2000) A randomizes, double-blind, placebo controlled trial of a nicotine sublingual tablet in smoking cessation. Addiction, 95, 1161-1171.
130. Warburton, D. M. (1988) The puzzle of nicotine use. In: Lader, M., ed. The Psychopharmacology of Addiction, pp. 27-24. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
131. Willner, P. & Jones, C. (1996) Effects of mood manupulation on subjective and behavioural measures of cigarette craving. Behavioural Pharmacology, 7, 355-363.
132. Wise, R. A. (1982) Neuroleptics and operant behavior: the anhedonia hypothesis. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 5, 39-87.
133. Wise, R. A. & Bozarth, M. A. (1987) A psychomotor stimulant theory of addiction. Psychological Review, 94, 469-492.
134. de Wit, H., Pierri, J. & Johanson, C. E. (1989) Assessing individual differences in ethanol preference using a cumulative dosing procedure. Psychopharmacology, 98, 113-119.
135. de Wit, H. & Stewart, J. (1981) Reinstatement of cocaine reinforced responding in the rat. Psychopharmacology, 75, 134-143.
136. de Wit, H. & Stewart, J. (1983) Drug reinstatement of heroin-reinforced responding in the rat. Psychopharmacology, 79, 29-31.
137. de Wit, H., Uhlenhuth, E. H., Pierri, J. & Johanson, C. E. (1987) Individual differences in behavioral and subjective responses to alcohol. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 11, 52-59.
138. Woods, J. H. & Schuster, C. R. (1971) Opiates as reinforcing stimuli. In: Thompson, T. & Pickens, R., eds. Stimulus Properties of Drugs, pp. 163-175. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
139. World Health Organization (1993) The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders: Diagnostic Criteria for Research. Geneva: World Health Organization.
140. Wu, L. T. & Anthony, J. C. (1999) Tobacco smoking and depressed mood in late childhood and early adolescence. American Journal of Public Health, 89, 1837-1840.