What do we mean by the term "inflammation"? A contemporary basic science update for sports medicine

British Journal of Sports Medicine

Volumn 38, Issue 3, 2004, Pages 372-380

  Scott, A ^a   Khan, K M ^a   Roberts, C R ^a   Cook, J L ^b   Duronio, V ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

^b LA TROBE UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; APYRASE; CHEMOKINE RECEPTOR CXCR2; CORTICOSTEROID; CYCLOOXYGENASE 1; CYCLOOXYGENASE 2; DICLOFENAC; GELATINASE B; IBUPROFEN; INDOMETACIN; INTERLEUKIN 8; LIPOCORTIN; NEUTROPHIL COLLAGENASE; NITRIC OXIDE; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; PARACETAMOL; PIROXICAM; PROSTAGLANDIN; PROSTAGLANDIN SYNTHASE INHIBITOR; SURAMIN; THROMBOMODULIN; TISSUE FACTOR PATHWAY INHIBITOR;

ANKLE SPRAIN; ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY; CARTILAGE DEGENERATION; CELL INTERACTION; CELL TYPE; CLINICAL RESEARCH; DIGESTIVE SYSTEM FUNCTION DISORDER; ENDOTHELIUM CELL; ENZYME ACTIVITY; ENZYME INHIBITION; EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX; FIBROBLAST; HUMAN; INFLAMMATION; LOW LEVEL LASER THERAPY; LYMPHOCYTE; MACROPHAGE; MAST CELL; MONOCYTE; NERVE CELL; NEUTROPHIL; NONHUMAN; REVIEW; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SOFT TISSUE INJURY; SPORT INJURY; SPORTS MEDICINE; T LYMPHOCYTE; TENDINITIS; TENDON RUPTURE; THROMBOCYTE; ULTRASOUND;

ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AGENTS; BLOOD PLATELETS; ENDOTHELIAL CELLS; FIBROBLASTS; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION; MACROPHAGES; MAST CELLS; MONOCYTES; NEURONS; NEUTROPHILS; T-LYMPHOCYTES;

EID: 2942515942     PISSN: 03063674     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1136/bjsm.2004.011312     Document Type: Review

References (138)

1. Toumi H, Best TM. The inflammatory response: friend or enemy for muscle injury? Br J Sports Med 2003;37:284-6.
2. Scott A, Khan KM, Cook JL, et al. What is "inflammation?" Are we ready to move beyond Celsus? Br J Sports Med 2004;38:248-9.
3. Hart DA, Frank CB, Bray RC. Inflammatory processes in repetitive motion and overuse syndromes: potential role of neurogenic mechanisms in tendons and ligaments. In: Fine LJ, ed. Repetitive motion disorders of the upper extremity. Rosemont: American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, 1995:247-62.
4. Marcus AJ. Platelets: their role in hemostasis, thrombosis and inflammation. In: Snyderman R, ed. Inflammation: basic principles and clinical correlates, 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lipincott Williams & Wilkins, 1999:77-95.
5. Naimushin YA, Mazurov AV. Role of glycoprotein IIb-IIIa (alpha IIb beta 3-integrin) in stimulation of secretion from platelet granules. Biochemistry (Mosc) 2003;68:209-16.
6. Wang GR, Zhu Y, Halushka PV, et al. Mechanism of platelet inhibition by nitric oxide: in vivo phosphorylation of thromboxane receptor by cyclic GMP-dependent protein kinase. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998;95:4888-93.
7. Ohman KP, Yun JC, Keiser HR. Interaction of prostaglandins with adenosine diphosphate induced increase in cytosolic free calcium in human platelets. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1992;52:483-90.
8. Zissel G, Schlaak J, Schlaak M, et al. Regulation of cytokine release by alveolar macrophages treated with interleukin-4, interleukin-10, or transforming growm factor beta. Eur Cytokine Netw 1996;7:59-66.
9. Pierce GF, Mustoe TA, Lingelbach J, et al. Platelet-derived growth factor and transforming growth factor-beta enhance tissue repair activities by unique mechanisms. J Cell Biol 1989;109:429-40.
10. Adams DH, Hathaway M, Shaw J, et al. Transforming growth factor-beta induces human T lymphocyte migration in vitro. J Immunol 1991;147:609-12.
11. Roberts AB, Sporn MB, Assoian RK, et al. Transforming growth factor type beta: rapid induction of fibrosis and angiogenesis in vivo and stimulation of collagen formation in vitro. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1986;83:4167-71.
12. Spindler KP, Murray MM, Detwiler KB, et al. The biomechanical response to doses of TGF-beta 2 in the healing rabbit medial collateral ligament. J Orthop Res 2003;21:245-9.
13. Gope R. The effect of epidermal growth factor & platelet-derived growth factors on wound healing process. Indian J Med Res 2002;116:201-6.
14. Molloy T, Wang Y, Murrell G. The roles of growth factors in tendon and ligament healing. Sports Med 2003;33:381-94.
15. Almekinders LC, Banes AJ. A biologic approach to the treatment of tendinopathy. Paper presented at the IOC Workshop on Tendinopathies, Athens, Greece, 2003.
16. Desmouliere A, Redard M, Darby I, et al. Apoptosis mediates the decrease in cellularity during the transition between granulation tissue and scar. Am J Pathol 1995;146:56-66.
17. Yang Y, Loscalzo J. Regulation of tissue factor expression in human microvascular endothelial cells by nitric oxide. Circulation 2000;101:2144-8.
18. Karmann K, Hughes CC, Schechner J, et al. CD40 on human endothelial cells: inducibility by cytokines and functional regulation of adhesion molecule expression. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995;92:4342-6.
19. Thienel U, Loike J, Yellin MJ. CD154 (CD40L) induces human endothelial cell chemokine production and migration of leukocyte subsets. Cell Immunol 1999;198:87-95.
20. Kunkel EJ, Ley K. Distinct phenotype of E-selectin-deficient mice. E-selectin is required for slow leukocyte rolling in vivo. Circ Res 1996;79:1196-204.
21. Klintmon D, Schramm R, Menger MD, et al. Leukocyte recruitment in hepatic injury: selectin-mediated leukocyte rolling is a prerequisite for CD18-dependent firm adhesion. J Hepatol 2002;36:53-9.
22. Benelli R, Morini M, Carrozzino F, et al. Neutrophils as a key cellular target for angiostatin: implications for regulation of angiogenesis and inflammation. FASEB J 2002;16:267-9.
23. Volk T, Hensel M, Schuster H, et al. Secretion of MCP-1 and IL-6 by cytokine stimulated production of reactive oxygen species in endothelial cells. Mol Cell Biochem 2000;206:105-12.
24. Raab M, Daxecker H, Markovic S, et al. Variation of adhesion molecule expression on human umbilical vein endothelial cells upon multiple cytokine application. Clin Chim Acta 2002;321:11-16.
25. Tsuzaki M, Guyton G, Garrett W, et al. IL-1 beta induces COX2, MMP-1, -3 and -13, ADAMTS-4, IL-1 beta and IL-6 in human tendon cells. J Orthop Res 2003;21:256-64.
26. Cavaillon JM. Pro- versus anti-inflammatory cytokines: myth or reality. Cell Mol Biol (Noisy-le-grand) 2001;47:695-702.
27. MacIntyre DL, Sorichter S, Mair J, et al. Markers of inflammation and myofibrillar proteins following eccentric exercise in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol 2001;84:180-6.
28. Liu F, Poursine-Laurent J, Wu HY, et al. Interleukin-6 and the granulocyte colony-stimulating factor receptor are major independent regulators of granulopoiesis in vivo but are not required for lineage commitment or terminal differentiation. Blood 1997;90:2583-90.
29. Griffioen AW, Molema G. Angiogenesis: potentials for pharmacologic intervention in the treatment of cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and chronic, inflammation. Pharmacol Rev 2000;52:237-68.
30. Vlodavsky I, Fuks Z, Ishai-Michaeli R, et al. Extracellular matrix-resident basic fibroblast growth factor: implication for the control of angiogenesis. J Cell Biochem 1991;45:167-76.
31. Howdieshell TR, Riegner C, Gupta V, et al. Normoxic wound fluid contains high levels of vascular endothelial growth factor. Ann Surg 1998;228:707-15.
32. Ohberg L, Alfredson H. Sclerosing therapy in chronic Achilles tendon insertional pain-results of a pilot study. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 2003;12:12.
33. Gamer L, McDermott K, Cox K, et al. Molecular and cellualar analysis of rotator cuff tendinosis in a rat model. Paper presented at: 48th Annual Meeting of the Orthopaedic Research Society, 2002.
34. Bainton DF. Developmental biology of neutrophils and eosinophils. In: Snyderman R, ed. Inflammation: basic principles and clinical correlates, 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Lipincott Williams & Wilkins, 1999:13-34.
35. Dovi JV, He LK, DiPietro LA. Accelerated wound closure in neutrophil-depleted mice. J Leukoc Biol 2003;73:448-55.
36. Gillitzer R, Goebeler M. Chemokines in cutaneous wound healing. J Leukoc Biol 2001;69:513-21.
37. Proudfoot AE, Peitsch MC, Power CA, et al. Structure and bioactivity of recombinant human CTAP-III and NAP-2. J Protein Chem 1997;16:37-49.
38. Oshiro W, Lou J, Xing X, et al. Flexor tendon healing in the rat: a histologic and gene expression study. J Hand Surg [Am] 2003;28:814-23.
39. Simpson DM, Ross R. The neutrophilic leukocyte in wound repair a study with antineutrophil serum. J Clin Invest 1972;51:2009-23.
40. Khan KM, Cook JL, Kannus P, et al. Time to abandon the "tendinitis" myth. BMJ 2002;324:626-7.
41. Trautmann A, Toksoy A, Engelhardt E, et al. Mast cell involvement in normal human skin wound healing: expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 is correlated with recruitment of mast cells which synthesize interleukin-4 in vivo. J Pathol 2000;190:100-6.
42. Hirani N, Antonicelli F, Strieter RM, et al. The regulation of interleukin-8 by hypoxia in human macrophages: a potential role in the pathogenesis of the acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Mol Med 2001;7:685-97.
43. Bokarewa MI, Morrissey JH, Tarkowski A. Tissue factor as a proinflammatory agent. Arthritis Res 2002;4:190-5.
44. Sunderkotter C, Goebeler M, Schulze-Osthoff K, et al. Macrophage-derived angiogenesis factors. Pharmacol Ther 1991;51:195-216.
45. Imai K, Hiramatsu A, Fukushima D, et al. Degradation of decorin by matrix metalloproteinases: identification of the cleavage sites, kinetic analyses and transforming growth factor-beta 1 release. Biochem J 1997;322:809-14.
46. Lescaudron L, Peltekian E, Fontaine-Perus J, et al. Blood borne macrophages are essential for the triggering of muscle regeneration following muscle transplant. Neuromuscul Disord 1999;9:72-80.
47. Santavirta S, Konttinen YT, Antti-Poika I, et al. Inflammation of the subacromial bursa in chronic shoulder pain. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg 1992;111:336-40.
48. Tidball JG. Inflammatory cell response to acute muscle injury. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1995;27:1022-32.
49. Yoshida M, Nakamura T, Kikuchi T, et al. Expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 in primary cultures of rabbit intervertebral disc cells. J Orthop Res 2002;20:1298-304.
50. Marsolais D, Cote CH, Frenette J. Neutrophils and macrophages accumulate sequentially following Achilles tendon injury. J Orthop Res 2001;19:1203-9.
51. Wojciak B, Crossan JF. The accumulation of inflammatory cells in synovial sheath and epitenon during adhesion formation in healing rat flexor tendons. Clin Exp Immunol 1993;93:108-14.
52. Mass DP, Tuel RJ. Intrinsic healing of the laceration site in human superficialis flexor tendons in vitro. J Hand Surg [Am] 1991;16:24-30.
53. Yuan J, Murrell GA, Wei AQ, et al. Apoptosis in rotator cuff tendonopathy. J Orthop Res 2002;20:1372-9.
54. Fishel RS, Barbul A, Beschorner WE, et al. Lymphocyte participation in wound healing. Morphologic assessment using monoclonal antibodies. Ann Surg 1987;206:25-9.
55. Vuk-Pavlovic Z, Rohrbach MS. Induction of interleukin-1-beta release from human monocytes by cotton bract tannin. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol 1990;91:394-7.
56. Gillitzer R. Inflammation in human skin: a model to study chemokine-mediated leukocyte migration in vivo. J Pathol 2001;194:393-4.
57. Blotnick S, Peoples GE, Freeman MR, et al. T lymphocytes synthesize and export heparin-binding epidermal growth factor-like growth factor and basic fibroblast growth factor, mitogens for vascular cells and fibroblasts: differential production and release by CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994;91:2890-4.
58. Barbul A, Shawe T, Rotter SM, et al. Wound healing in nude mice: a study on the regulatory role of lymphocytes in fibroplasia. Surgery 1989;105:764-9.
59. Efron JE, Frankel HL, Lazarou SA, et al. Wound healing and T-lymphocytes. J Surg Res 1990;48:460-3.
60. Schaffer M, Barbul A. Lymphocyte function in wound healing and following injury. Br J Surg 1998;85:444-60.
61. 60a Bensadoun E, Burke AK, Hogg JC, Roberts CR. Proteoglycan deposition in pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;154:1819-28.
62. Bucala R, Spiegel LA, Chesney J, et al. Circulating fibrocytes define a new leukocyte subpopulation that mediates tissue repair. Mol Med 1994;1:71-81.
63. 61a Roberts CR. Versican in the cell biology of pulmonary fibrosis. In: Garg H, ed. Proteoglycans in lung disease. New York: Marcel Dekker, 2002.
64. Almekinders LC, Banes AJ, Ballenger CA. Effects of repetitive motion on human fibroblasts. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1993;25:603-7.
65. Wang JH. Paper presented at IOC Workshop on Tendinopathies. Athens, Greece, 2003.
66. Banes AJ, Hart DA, Archambault JM. Paper presented at IOC Workshop on Tendinopathies. Athens, Greece, 2003.
67. Kjaer M, Langberg H, Skovgaard D, et al. In vivo studies of peritendinous tissue in exercise. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2000;10:326-31.
68. Schaffer M, Beiter T, Becker HD, et al. Neuropeptides: mediators of inflammation and tissue repair? Arch Surg 1998;133:1107-16.
69. D'Andrea MR, Rogahn O, Andrade-Gordon P. Localization of protease-activated receptors-1 and -2 in human mast cells: indications for an amplified mast cell degranulation cascade. Biotech Histochem 2000;75:85-90.
70. Kawabata A, Kawao N, Kuroda R, et al. Peripheral PAR-2 triggers thermal hyperalgesia and nociceptive responses in rats. Neuroreport 2001;12:715-19.
71. Boyce JA. Mast cells: beyond IgE. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003;11:24-32, quiz 33.
72. Noli C, Miolo A. The mast cell in wound healing. Vet Dermatol 2001;12:303-13.
73. Gordon JR. TGFbeta1 and TNFalpha secreted by mast cells stimulated via the FcepsilonRI activate fibroblasts for high-level production of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1). Cell Immunol 2000;201:42-9.
74. Baram D, Vaday GG, Salamon P, et al. Human mast cells release metalloproteinase-9 on contact with activated T cells: juxtacrine regulation by TNF-alpha. J Immunol 2001;167:4008-16.
75. Steiner DR, Gonzalez NC, Wood JG. Mast cells mediate the microvascular inflammatory response to systemic hypoxia. J Appl Physiol 2003;94:325-34.
76. Nguyen M, Solle M, Audoly LP, et al. Receptors and signaling mechanisms required for prostaglandin E2-mediated regulation of mast cell degranulation and IL-6 production. J Immunol 2002;169:4586-93.
77. Nilsson G, Forsberg-Nilsson K, Xiang Z, et al. Human mast cells express functional TrkA and are a source of nerve growth factor. Eur J Immunol 1997;27:2295-301.
78. Gottwald T, Coerper S, Schaffer M, et al. The mast cell-nerve axis in wound healing: a hypothesis. Wound Repair Regen 1998;6:8-20.
79. Andres KH, von During M, Schmidt RF. Sensory innervation of the Achilles tendon by group III and IV afferent fibers. Anal Embryol (Berl) 1985;172:145-56.
80. Mamet J, Baron A, Lazdunski M, et al. Proinflammatory mediators, stimulators of sensory neuron excitability via the expression of acid-sensing ion channels. J Neurosci 2002;22:10662-70.
81. Kimpinski K, Mearow K. Neurite growth promotion by nerve growth factor and insulin-like growth factor-1 in cultured adult sensory neurons: role of phosphoinositide 3-kinase and mitogen activated protein kinase. J Neurosci Res 2001;63:486-99.
82. Kakar S, Khan U, McGrouther DA. Differential cellular response within the rabbit tendon unit following tendon injury. J Hand Surg [Br] 1998;23:627-32.
83. Blair RJ, Meng H, Marchese MJ, et al. Human mast cells stimulate vascular tube formation. Tryptase is a novel, potent angiogenic factor. J Clin Invest 1997;99:2691-700.
84. Palmgren T, Gronblad M, Virri J, et al. An immunohistochemical study of nerve structures in the anulus fibrosus of human normal lumbar intervertebral discs. Spine 1999;24:2075-9.
85. Palmgren T, Gronblad M, Virri J, et al. Immunohistochemical demonstration of sensory and autonomic nerve terminals in herniated lumbar disc tissue. Spine 1996;21:1301-6.
86. Freemont AJ, Jeziorska M, Hoyland JA, et al. Mast cells in the pathogenesis of chronic back pain: a hypothesis. J Pathol 2002;197:281-5.
87. Steinhoff M, Vergnolle N, Young SH, et al. Agonists of proteinase-activated receptor 2 induce inflammation by a neurogenic mechanism. Nat Med 2000;6:151-8.
88. Geppetti P. Sensory neuropeptide release by bradykinin: mechanisms and pathophysiological implications. Regul Pept 1993;47:1-23.
89. Bolton TB, Clapp LH. Endothelial-dependent relaxant actions of carbachol and substance P in arterial smooth muscle. Br J Pharmacol 1986;87:713-23.
90. Seegers HC, Hood VC, Kidd BL, et al. Enhancement of angiogenesis by endogenous substance P release and neurokinin-1 receptors during neurogenic inflammation. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2003;306:8-12.
91. Baluk P, Bertrand C, Geppetti P, et al. NK1 receptors mediate leukocyte adhesion in neurogenic inflammation in the rat trachea. Am J Physiol 1995;268:L263-9.
92. Carolan EJ, Casale TB. Effects of neuropeptides on neutrophil migration through noncellular and endothelial barriers. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1993;92:589-98.
93. Hartung HP, Wolters K, Toyka KV. Substance P: binding properties and studies on cellular responses in guinea pig macrophages. J Immunol 1986;136:3856-63.
94. Payan DG, Goetzl EJ. Modulation or lymphocyte function by sensory neuropeptides. J Immunol 1985;135:783s-6s.
95. Reynier-Rebuffel AM, Mathiau P, Callebert J, et al. Substance P, calcitonin gene-related peptide, and capsaicin release serotonin from cerebrovascular mast cells. Am J Physiol 1994;267:R1421-9.
96. Ivie TJ, Bray RC, Salo PT. Denervation impairs healing of the rabbit medial collateral ligament. J Ortnop Res 2002;20:990-5.
97. Ackermann PW, Li J, Lundeberg T, et al. Neuronal plasticity in relation to nociception and healing of rat achilles tendon. J Orthop Res 2003;21:432-41.
98. Curl WW. Clinical relevance of sports-induced inflammation. In: Gordon JR, ed. Sports-induced inflammation. Park Ridge, IL: American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, 1989:149-54.
99. Almekinders LC. The efficacy of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in the treatment of ligament injuries. Sports Med 1990;9:137-42.
100. Alfredson H, Thorsen K, Lorentzon R. In situ microdialysis in tendon tissue: high levels of glutamate, but not prostaglandin E2 in chronic Achilles tendon pain. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 1999;7:378-81.
101. Alfredson H, Ljung BO, Thorsen K, et al. In vivo investigation of ECRB tendons with microdialysis technique: no signs of inflammation but high amounts of glutamate in tennis elbow. Acta Orthop Scand 2000;71:475-9.
102. Alfredson H, Forsgren S, Thorsen K, et al. In vivo microdialysis and immunohistochemical analyses of tendon tissue demonstrated high amounts of free glutamate and glutamate NMDAR1 receptors, but no signs of inflammation, in Jumper's knee. J Ortnop Res 2001;19:881-6.
103. Warner TD, Mitchell JA. Cyclooxygenase-3 (COX-3): filling in the gaps toward a COX continuum? Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002;99:13371-3.
104. Gajraj NM. Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors. Anesth Analg 2003;96:1720-38.
105. Berg J, Christoph T, Widerna M, et al. Isoenzyme-specific cyclooxygenase inhibitors: a whole cell assay system using the human erythroleukemic cell line HEL and the human monocytic cell line Mono Mac 6. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 1997;37:179-86.
106. Meade EA, Smith WL, DeWitt DL. Differential inhibition of prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase (cyclooxygenase) isozymes by aspirin ana other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. J Biol Chem 1993;268:6610-14.
107. Hutchins B, Patel H, Spears R. Attenuation of pro-inflammatory neuropeptide levels produced by a cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor in an animal model of chronic temporomandibular joint inflammation. J Orofac Pain 2002;16:312-16.
108. Chandrasekharan NV, Dai H, Roos KL, et al. COX-3, a cyclooxygenase-1 variant inhibited by acetaminophen and other analgesic/antipyretic drugs: cloning, structure, and expression. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002;99:13926-31.
109. Dahners LE, Gilbert JA, Lester GE, et al. The effect of a nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug on the healing of ligaments. Am J Sports Med 1988;16:641-6.
110. Almekinders LC. Anti-inflammatory treatment of muscular injuries in sport. An update of recent studies. Sports Med 1999;28:383-8.
111. Elder CI, Dahners LE, Weinhold PS. A cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor impairs ligament healing in the rat. Am J Sports Med 2001;29:801-5.
112. Stovitz S, Johnson R. NSAIDs and musculoskeletal treatment: what is the clinical evidence? Phys Sportsmed 2003;31:21-7.
113. Fredberg U. Local corticosteroid injection in sport: review of literature and guidelines for treatment. Scand J Med Sci Sports 1997;7:131-9.
114. Case JP. Old and new drugs used in rheumatoid arthritis: a historical perspective. Part 1: the older drugs. Am J Ther 2001;8:123-43.
115. MacLeod JN, Fubini SL, Gu DN, et al. Effect of synovitis and corticosteroids on transcription of cartilage matrix proteins. Am J Vet Res 1998;59:1021-6.
116. Snyder DS, Unanue ER. Corticosteroids inhibit murine macrophage la expression and interleukin 1 production. J Immunol 1982;129:1803-5.
117. Supowit SC, Christensen MD, Westlund KN, et al. Dexamethasone and activators of the protein kinase A and C signal transduction pathways regulate neuronal calcitonin gene-related peptide expression and release. Brain Res 1995;686:77-86.
118. Levine WN, Bergfeld JA, Tessendorf W, et al. Intramuscular corticosteroid injection for hamstring injuries. A 13-year experience in the National Football League. Am J Sports Med 2000;28:297-300.
119. Goddard DH, Revell PA, Cason J, et al. Ultrasound has no anti-inflammatory effect. Ann Rheum Dis 1983;42:582-4.
120. Rantanen J, Thorsson O, Wollmer P, et al. Effects of therapeutic ultrasound on the regeneration of skeletal myofibers after experimental muscle injury. Am J Sports Med 1999;27:54-9.
121. Azuma Y, Ito M, Harada Y, et al. Low-intensity pulsed ultrasound accelerates rat femoral fracture healing by acting on the various cellular reactions in the fracture callus. J Bone Miner Res 2001;16:671-80.
122. Ito M, Azuma Y, Ohta T, et al. Effects of ultrasound and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on growth factor secretion in co-cultures of osteoblasts and endothelial cells. Ultrasound Med Biol 2000;26:161-6.
123. Bjordal JM, Couppe Roberta C, Chow RT, et al. A systematic review of low level laser therapy with location-specific doses for pain from chronic joint disorders. Aust J Physiother 2003;49:107-16.
124. Honmura A, Yanase M, Obata J, et al. Therapeutic effect of Ga-Al-As diode laser irradiation on experimentally induced inflammation in rats. Lasers Surg Med 1992;12:441-9.
125. Vasseljen O Jr, Hoeg N, Kjeldstad B, et al. Low level laser versus placebo in the treatment of tennis elbow. Scand J Rehabil Med 1992;24:37-42.
126. Stralka SW, Jackson JA, Lewis AR. Treatment of hand and wrist pain. A randomized clinical trial of high voltage pulsed, direct current built into a wrist splint. AAOHN J 1998;46:233-6.
127. Griffin JW, Newsome LS, Stralka SW, et al. Reduction of chronic posttraumatic hand edema: a comparison of high voltage pulsed current, intermittent pneumatic compression, and placebo treatments. Phys Ther 1990;70:279-86.
128. Zizic TM, Hoffman KC, Holt PA, et al. The treatment of osteoarthritis of the knee with pulsed electrical stimulation. J Rheumatol 1995;22:1757-61.
129. Thornton RM, Mendel FC, Fish DR. Effects of electrical stimulation on edema formation in different strains of rats. Phys Ther 1998;78:386-94.
130. Karnes JL, Mendel FC, Fish DR, et al. High-voltage pulsed current: its influence on diameters of histamine-dilated arterioles in hamster cheek pouches. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1995;76:381-6.
131. Bettany JA, Fish DR, Mendel FC. High-voltage pulsed direct current: effect on edema formation after hyperflexion injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1990;71:677-81.
132. Stouber WT, Smith CA, Miller GR, et al. Recovery from 6 weeks of repeated strain injury to rat soleus muscles. Muscle Nerve 2000;23:1819-25.
133. Hurme T, Kalimo H. Adhesion in skeletal muscle during regeneration. Muscle Nerve 1992;15:482-9.
134. Chan YS, Li Y, Foster W, et al. Antifibrotic effects of suramin in injured skeletal muscle after laceration. J Appl Physiol 2003;95:771-80.
135. Diwan AD, Wang MX, Jang D, et al. Nitric oxide modulates fracture healing. J Bone Miner Res 2000;15:342-51.
136. Cake MA, Appleyard RC, Read RA, et al. Topical administration of the nitric oxide donor glyceryl trinitrate modifies the structural and biomechanical properties of ovine articular cartilage T. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2003;11:872-8.
137. Paoloni JA, Appleyard RC, Nelson J, et al. Topical nitric oxide application in the treatment of chronic extensor tendinosis at the elbow: a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Am J Sports Med 2003;31:915-20.
138. Yuan J, Murrell GA, Wei AQ, et al. Addition of nitric oxide via nitroflurbiprofen enhances the material properties of early healing of young rat Achilles tendons. Inflamm Res 2003;52:230-7.