Teaching as a woman's job: The impact of the admission of women to elementary teaching in England and France in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries

History of Education

Volumn 34, Issue 5, 2005, Pages 483-496

  Trouvé Finding, Susan ^a  

^a UNIVERSITÉ DE POITIERS   (France)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 27944450088     PISSN: 0046760X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00467600500220689     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (121)

1. D. Billotry, 'Le recrutement des institutrices', Manuel général de l'Instruction primaire, 25 December 1920.
2. J. C. Albisetti, 'The feminization of teaching in the nineteenth century: a comparative perspective', History of Education, 22, 3 (1993) 253-263.
3. M. Van Essen, 'Strategies of women teachers 1860-1920: feminization in Dutch elementary and secondary schools from a comparative perspective', History of Education, 28, 4 (1999), 413-433.
4. B. H. Bergen, Only a schoolmaster: gender, class and the effort to professionalize elementary teaching in England 1870-1910', History of Education Quarterly, 22 (1982);
5. D. M. Copelman, London's Women Teachers. Gender, Class and Feminism 1870-1930 (London: Routledge, 1996);
6. W. Robinson, Pupil Teachers and Their Professional Training in Pupil Teacher Centres in England and Wales 1870-1914 (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen, 2003);
7. E. Edwards, Women in Teacher Training Colleges, 1900-1960. A Culture of Femininity (London: Routledge, 2001).
8. D. Delhome, N. Gault and J. Gonthier, Les premières institutrices laïques (Paris: Mercure de France, 1980);
9. J. Ozouf and M. Ozouf, La république des instituteurs (Paris: Gallimard, Le Seuil, 1992);
10. P. Meyers, 'From conflict to cooperation: men and women teachers in the Belle Époque', in D. N. Baker and P. J. Harrigan (eds), The Making of Frenchmen. Current Directions in the History of Education in France 1679-1978 (Waterloo, Ontario: Historical Reflections Press, 1980), 493-505;
11. e cycle, Paris X Nanterre, 1973.
12. E. Roberts, Women's Work 1840-1940 (London: Macmillan, 1988), 31-40;
13. J. Lewis, 'Women and society: continuity and change since 1870', in A. Digby & C. Feinstein (eds), New Directions in Economic and Social History (London: Macmillan, 1989), 130-142, Table 10.
14. See S. Schweitzer, Les femmes ont toujours travaillé, une histoire du travail des femmes aux XIXe et XX e siècles (Paris: Odile Jacob, 2002);
15. F. Guéland-Leridon, Le Travail des femmes en France (Paris: PUF, 1964), Table 1.
16. See L. L. Clark, Schooling the Daughters of Marianne: textbooks and the socialization of girls in modern French primary schools (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1984).
17. For England, see F. Hunt, Lessons for Life: the schooling of girls and women 1850-1950 (London: Blackwell, 1987).
18. For the former, see Robinson, Pupil Teachers and Their Professional Training.
19. For the latter, see Edwards, Women in Teacher Training Colleges.
20. Calculated from statistics in P. Horn, 'The recruitment, role and status of the Victorian country teacher', History of Education, 9, 2 (1980), 129-215;
21. Meyers, 'From conflict to cooperation', 493-505.
22. Board of Education statistics 1900-1901, Parliamentary Papers XLX, 27
23. quoted by P. L. R. Horn, Education in Rural England, 1800-1914 (Dublin: Gill & Macmillan, 1978), 76;
24. A. Roberts, 'The development of professionalism in the early stages of education', British Journal of Educational Studies, XXIV, 3 (1976), 254-264;
25. A. Oram, Women Teachers and Feminist Politics 1900-1939 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996), Table 2.
26. Figures calculated from Parliamentary Papers, XXVI, 1, 1897,
27. and Statistical Abstract for the United Kingdom, Table 3B, in Bergen, 'Only a schoolmaster'.
28. th century Britanny: Ille et Vilaine 1800-1914', Oxford Review of Education, 2, 3 (1976);
29. J. Girault, Instituteurs, professeurs, une culture syndicale dans la société française (fin XIXe-XX e siècle) (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1996), 64.
30. Guéland-Leridon, Le Travail des femmes en France;
31. M. Rivet, 'L'enseignement primaire en France depuis la guerre', Bulletin de la statistique générale de la France, XXV, II (1936), 314;
32. Schweitzer, Les femmes ont toujours travaillé, 96.
33. Meyers 'From conflict to cooperation'.
34. Bulletin de l'Association Amicale des Anciennes Élèves, 31 March 1938.
35. F. Granvaud Jourdanneau, Images et Vie de l'Ecole Normale d'Institutrices de Poitiers 1887-1991 (Poitiers: Éditions du Pont Neuf, 1994), 50.
36. The term was used by Ferdinand Buisson, 1909, L'Instituteur et la République, La Grande Revue, 10 November.
37. Christina de Bellaigue discusses this divergent tradition for mid-nineteenth century France and England: 'Behind the school walls: the school community in French and English boarding schools for girls, 1810-1867', Paedagogica Historica, 40, 1-2 (2004), 107-121.
38. Robinson, Pupil Teachers and Their Professional Training, 195.
39. Edwards, Women in Teacher Training Colleges, 6-7.
40. M. R. Clark, A History of the French Labor Movement 1910-1928 (Berkeley, CA: University of California, 1938),
41. quoting Bulletin de statistique générale de la France, October-December 1931, 140;
42. C. Dyer, Population and Society in Twentieth Century France (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1978), Table 32;
43. Guéland-Leridon, Le Travail des femmes en France.
44. Journal des Instituteurs, 1929, 22 June;
45. S. Trouvé-Finding, Trench state primary teachers 1914-1931. Their evolving role in the third republic', Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Sussex, 1987, 38-39 and Table 23.
46. Trouvé-Finding, 'French state primary teachers 1914-1931', ch. 2.
47. Ibid., Table 5.
48. H. Kean, Deeds not Words. The Lives of Suffragette Teachers (London: Pluto, 1990), 147, note 18.
49. J. Ozouf, 'Les instituteurs de la Manche et leurs associations au début du XX e siècle', Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine, XIII (1966), 95-114.
50. Charles Péguy, 'De Jean Coste', Cahiers de la Quinzaine, IV, 3, 4 November 1902.
51. Bulletin du Syndicat National des Instituteurs du Maine et Loire, 1921, 3, 4;
52. Schwarz, Manuel général de l'Instruction primaire, 30 March 1929.
53. W. F. Goldstone, NUT. sponsored Labour MP, 1910-1918, NUT General Secretary, 1924-1931, Times Educational Supplement, 7 April 1914.
54. Roberts, Women's Work 1840-1940;
55. Lewis, 'Women and society: continuity and change since 1870'.
56. Edwards, 2001, Women in Teacher Training Colleges, 1900-1960, 11;
57. A. Oram, 'Serving two masters? The introduction of a marriage bar in teaching in the 1920s', in London Feminist History Group (eds), The Sexual Dynamics of History (London: Pluto, 1983), 134-48.
58. Trouvé-Finding, 'French state primary teachers 1914-1931', Table 1.
59. Statistique de l'enseignement primaire, 8, 1909, Table 12,
60. in Clark Schooling the Daughters of Marianne.
61. Manuel général de l'Instruction primaire, L'instituteur et l'institutrice dans la société moderne (Paris: Hachette, 1912).
62. I. Berger, 'Hommes et femmes dans une même profession. Instituteurs et institutrices. Premiers résultats d'une enquête dans le département de la Seine', Revue française de sociologie, (1960), 173-185;
63. I. Berger and R. Benjamin, L'univers des instituteurs. Etude sociologique sur les instituteurs et institutrices du département de la Seine (Paris: Éditions de Minuit, 1964),
64. Ozouf and Ozouf, La république des instituteurs, 52.
65. Trouvé-Finding Trench state primary teachers 1914-1931', Table 10.
66. F. Widdowson, Going up to the Next Class: Women and Elementary Teacher Training 1840-1914 (Women's Research & Resources Centre, 1980), 45-46, Tables 2 and 3;
67. Copelman, London's Women Teachers, 34, Table 2.4.
68. Copelman, London's Women Teachers, 33;
69. Robinson, Pupil Teachers and Their Professional Training, 188-190.
70. David A. Coppock, 'Respectability as a prerequisite of moral character: the social and occupational mobility of pupil teachers in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries', History of Education, 26, 2 (1997), 177.
71. A. C. O. Ellis, 'The training and supply of teachers in the Victorian period', History of Education Society Bulletin, 24 (1979), 22-38;
72. Roberts, 'The development of professionalism in the early stages of education'.
73. Robinson, Pupil Teachers and Their Professional Training.
74. Ibid., 32, 155.
75. Special Reports on Educational Subjects 1897-1898, Education Department, Vol. 1, Public Elementary Education in England and Wales 1870-1895,
76. quoted by A. Tropp, The School Teachers. The Growth of the Teaching Profession in England and Wales from 1800 to the Present Day (London: Heinemann, 1957), 114-117, 170-171.
77. J. Purvis, A History of Women's Education in England (Oxford: OUP, 1991), 21.
78. Letter from G. L. Bruce, Times Educational Supplement, 2 July 1914.
79. J. Liddington and J. Norris, One Hand Tied Behind Us. The rise of the women's suffrage movement (London: Virago, 1978).
80. 'After-careers of scholars', Times Educational Supplement, 3 December 1912.
81. Tropp, The School Teachers, 118, note 22;
82. Robinson, Pupil Teachers and Their Professional Training, 161.
83. Certification (by inspection) did not necessarily mean college trained. Figures collated from Board of Education Report 1900-1901, Parliamentary Papers, XIX, 27, in Horn, Education in Rural England, 1800-1914, (Dublin Gill and Macmillan, 1978), 103.
84. Calculated from figures in Special Reports on Educational Subjects 1897-1898, Education Department, Vol. 1, Public Elementary Education in England and Wales 1870-1895, in Tropp, The School Teachers, 113-114, note 12, 117-117, 170-171.
85. Robinson, Pupil Teachers and Their Professional Training, discusses fully the implications and agenda behind the reforms in secondary schooling and elementary teacher training at the beginning of the twentieth century.
86. 'The training of teachers. New difficulties and their solution', Times Educational Supplement, 2 May 1911.
87. Trouvé-Finding, 'French state primary teachers 1914-1931', Table 3.
88. Chester, Devon, Essex, Lancashire, London, Birkenhead, Birmingham, Bradford, Bristol, Cardiff, Hastings, Leeds and West Ham.
89. A joint salary of £75 in 1890 and £90 in 1894 was paid to the incumbent families at Great Rissington.
90. M. Boyes, A Cotswold Village School from Victorian Times (Cheltenham: The Rissingtons Local History Society, 1997), 54-57, 69.
91. Coppock, 'Respectability as a prerequisite of moral character', Table 4.
92. Figures calculated from statistics Horn, 'The recruitment, role and status of the Victorian country teacher';
93. D. Wardle, English Popular Education 1780-1975 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977), 109.
94. Copelman, London's Women Teachers, 211-213.
95. Trouvé-Finding, 'French state primary teachers 1914-1931', Tables 39 and 40.
96. It is worth noting that major studies into social reproduction and ascent through education first appeared in France and largely concerned teaching dynasties: P. Bourdieu and J.-C. Passeron, La Reproduction: Eléments pour une Théorie du Système d'Enseignement (Paris: Éditions de Minuit, 1973).
97. P. Chevallier and B. Grosperrin, L'enseignement français de la Révolution à nos jours (Paris: Mouton, 1968), 56.
98. Trouvé-Finding, 1987, 'French state primary teachers 1914-1931', Table 6.
99. Widdowson, Going up to the Next Class, 57;
100. Coppock, 'Respectability as a prerequisite of moral character', 181.
101. Horn, 'The recruitment, role and status of the Victorian country teacher'. Norfolk's education provision appears to have been in financial straights. See Times Education Supplement, 6 October 1914,; HMI Report to Committee of Council on Education, 1896,
102. quoted by Horn, Education in Rural England, 1800-1914, 79.
103. Wardle, English Popular Education 1780-1975. Coppock, 'Respectability as a prerequisite of moral character', analysing recruitment in Birmingham notes the importance of high industrial wages for working-class males as a pull away from the profession, but seems to have overlooked this dearth of male recruits to teaching locally.
104. The question of the supply of trained teachers in response to demand remains open.
105. Trouvé-Finding, 'French state primary teachers 1914-1931, Table 2.
106. E. Bugnon, 'L'école de demain: le personnel', Manuel général de l'Instruction publique, 15 April 1916.
107. B. Allen, Sir Robert Morant: A Great Public Servant (London: Macmillan, 1934), 219,
108. quoted by Robinson, Pupil Teachers and Their Professional Training, 39-40.
109. Times Educational Supplement, 7 April 1914;
110. Circular 709, March 1909 had permitted their recruitment to cover vacancies. Circular 836 had extended this provision by five years; Roberts, 'The development of professionalism in the early stages of education'.
111. Copelman, London's Women Teachers, 51.
112. Oram, 'Serving two masters?;
113. A. Oram, '"Sex antagonism" in the teaching profession: equal pay and the marriage bar, 1910-39', in M. Arnot and G. Weiner (eds), Gender and the Politics of Schooling (London: Hutchinson, 1987).
114. Woman Teacher, 1911, September, 26, 70.
115. See Copelman, London's Women Teachers, 212.
116. The Times, 4 April 1918.
117. 'The training and supply of teachers', Times Educational Supplement, 5 May 1914.
118. Copelman, London's Women Teachers, 47-48.
119. Coppock, 'Respectability as a prerequisite of moral character', 166.
120. Oram, Women Teachers and Feminist Politics 1900-1939;
121. A. Oram, 'Inequalities in the teaching profession: the effects on teachers and pupils, 1910-1939', in F. Hunt (ed.), Lessons for Life. The Schooling of Girls and Women 1850-1950 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1987), 101-123.