An image of "our Indian": Type photographs and racial sentiments in Oaxaca, 1920-1940

HAHR - Hispanic American Historical Review

Volumn 84, Issue 1, 2004, Pages

  Poole, Deborah ^a  

^a JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 27844455948     PISSN: 00182168     EISSN: 15271900     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1215/00182168-84-1-37     Document Type: Review

References (157)

1. El Oaxaqueño (Oaxaca), 2 Dec. 1933, p. 1
2. "La dignidad de Indio," [unsigned editorial] El Oaxaqueño, 2 Apr. 1933
3. On photographic realism, see, among others, Roland Barthes, "Rhetoric of the Image," in Image, Music, Text, trans. Stephen Heath (New York: Hill & Wang, 1977), 32-51
4. Walter Benjamin, "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction," Illuminations (New York: Schocken, 1969), 217-54
5. and Alan Sekula, Photography against the Grain (Halifax: Nova Scotia College of Art and Design, 1984)
6. On the history of racial thought in Latin America, see among others, Marisol de la Cadena, Indigenous Mestizos: The Politics of Race and Culture in Cuzco, Peru, 1919-1991 (Durham: Duke Univ. Press, 2000)
7. Jorge I. Dominguez, ed., Race and Ethnicity in Latin America (New York Garland, 1994)
8. Jeffrey Gould, To Die in This Way: Nicaraguan Indians and the Myth of Mestizaje, 1880-1965 (Durham: Duke Univ. Press, 1998)
9. Greg Grandin, The Blood of Guatemala: A History of Race and Nation (Durham: Duke Univ. Press, 2000)
10. Richard Graham, ed., The Idea of Race in Latin America (Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1990)
11. Nancy Stepan, The Hour of Eugenics: Race, Gender, and Nation in Latin America (Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1991)
12. Verena Stolcke, Marriage, Class, and Colour in Nineteenth-Century Cuba (London: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1974)
13. and Peter Wade, Race and Ethnicity in Latin America (London: Pluto, 1997)
14. For Mexico, see especially Andrés Basave Benitez, México mestizo: Análisis del nacionalismo mexicano en torno a la mestizofilia de Andrés Molina Enríquez (Mexico City: FCE, 1992)
15. Alexander S. Dawson, "From Models for the Nation to Model Citizens: Indigenismo and the Revindication of the Mexican Indian, 1920-1940," Journal of Latin American Studies 30 (1998): 279-308
16. Charles A. Hale, Mexican Liberalism in the Age of Mora, 1821-53 (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1968), 215-47
17. Alan Knight, "Racism, Revolution, and Indigenismo: Mexico, 1910-1940," in The Idea of Race in Latin America, ed. R. Graham (Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1990), 71-113
18. Moisés González Navarro, Población y sociedad en México (Mexico City: UNAM, 1974)
19. and Gerardo Rénique, "Anti-Chinese Racism, Nationalism, and State Formation in Post-Revolutionary México, 1920s-1930s," Political Power and Social Theory 14 (2000): 91-140
20. On the ambiguity of the concept of race, see, among others, Robert Bernasconi, "Who Invented the Concept of Race? Kant's Role in the Enlightenment Construction of Race," in Race, ed. R. Bernasconi (London: Blackwell, 2000), 11-36
21. Michel Foucault, Genealogía del racismo (Madrid: La Piqueta, 1992)
22. David Theo Goldberg, Racist Culture (London: Blackwell, 1993)
23. Nicholas Hudson, "From Nation to Race: The Origin of Racial Classification in Eighteenth-Century Thought," Eighteenth Century Studies 29 (1996): 247-64
24. Walter Benn Michaels, "Race into Culture: A Critical Genealogy of Cultural Identity," Critical Inquiry 18 (summer 1992): 655-85
25. Deborah Poole, Vision, Race, and Modernity: A Visual Economy of the Andean Image World (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1997)
26. and Anne Stoler Race and the Education of Desire (Durham: Duke Univ. Press, 1995)
27. I use "common sense" in the Gramscian sense: a mode of explanation or understanding that stands "midway between folklore proper . . . and the philosophy, science, and economics of the scientists." Antonio Gramsci, Selections from Cultural Writings (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1985), 421
28. see also Kate Crehan, Gramsci, Culture, and Anthropology (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 2002), 110-15
29. For Gramsci, common sense was not a natural expression of either human reason or local culture, but the product of a continuously changing sorting of ideas, concepts, and representations that filtered down from the realm of literature, science, and philosophy into popular understandings of the world. As such, common sense, for Gramsci, is inherently "fragmentary [and] incoherent." Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks (New York: International, 1971), 419. In considering how images shape the visual imaginary and, through it, commonsense understandings of cultural and racial difference, it is precisely this quality of incoherence that interests me
30. On the class dynamics of nineteenth-century portraiture, see especially André Rouillé, L'empire de la photographie, 1839-1870 (Paris: Le Sycomore, 1982)
31. André Rouillé, La photographie en France: Textes et controverses, 1816-1871 (Paris: Macula, 1989)
32. Alan Sekula, "The Body and the Archive," in The Contest of Meaning: Critical Histories of Photography, ed. Ralph Bolton (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989), 343-89
33. John Tagg, The Burden of Representation (Amherst: Univ. of Massachusetts Press, 1988)
34. and Alan Trachtenberg, Reading American Photographs: Images As History, Mathew Brady to Walker Evans (New York: Noonday, 1989)
35. On race and photography, see Deborah Poole, Vision
36. and Elizabeth Edwards, Raw Histories: Photographs, Anthropology, and Museums (New York: Berg, 2001)
37. On the aesthetics and classificatory logic of type albums and collections, see Elizabeth Edwards, "Photographic Types: In Pursuit of Method," Visual Anthropology 3 (2-3): 235-58
38. Edwards, Raw Histories, 131-55
39. Michel Frizot et al., Identités: De Disdéri au photomaton (Paris: Centre National de la Photographie; Editions du Chene, 1985)
40. Chris Pinney, "Colonial Anthropology and the Laboratory of Mankind," in The Raj: India and the British, 1600-1942, ed. C. Bayley (London: National Portrait Gallery, 1990)
41. Poole, Vision, 107-141
42. and David Prochaska, "The Archive of Algerie Imaginaire," History and Anthropology 4 (1990): 373-420
43. On the aesthetic of collection in general, see Jean Baudrillard, The System of Objects (London: Verso, 1996)
44. Walter Benjamin, "Unpacking My Library: A Talk about Book Collecting," in Illuminations, 59-67
45. James Clifford, "On Collecting," in The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1998), 215-51
46. Susan Stewart, On Longing: Narratives of the Miniature, the Gigantic, the Souvenir, the Collection (Durham: Duke Univ. Press, 1999)
47. On Aubert, see Arturo Aguilar Ochoa, La fotografía durante el imperio de Maximiliano (Mexico City: UNAM; Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas, 1996), 115-127
48. and Olivier Debroise, Fuga mexicana: Un recorrido por la fotografía en México (Mexico City: Cultura Contemporánea de México, 1994), 107-8
49. and Rouillé, L'empire
50. and Sekula, "Body and Archive."
51. On the adoption of Bertillon's system in Mexico, see Ignacio Fernández Ortigosa, Identificación científica de los reos (Mexico City: Imprenta del Sagrado Corazón de Jesús, 1892)
52. Like the Mexican subjects photographed by Aubert and other French photographers of the time, the occupations represented in the European physiognomies were identified by their association with certain tools, gestures, and costumes. On the European physiognomies, see Jean-Jacques Courtine and Claudine Haroche, Histoire du visage (Paris: Rivages, 1989)
53. and Judith Wechsler, A Human Comedy: Physiognomy and Caricature in Nineteenth-Century Paris (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1982)
54. On nineteenth-century Mexican type images, see Aguilar Ochoa, Fotografía durante el imperio, 115-27
55. Debroise, Fuga mexicana: Viajeros europeos del siglo XIX en México (Mexico City: Banamex, 1996), 159-79
56. Patricia Massé Zendejas, Simulacro y elegancia en tarjetas de visita: Fotografías de cruces y campa (Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de Antropología y Historia; Colegio Alquimia, 1998)
57. Maria Esther Pérez Salas C., "Genealogía de Los méxicanos pintados por si mismos," Historia Mexicana 48, no. 2, (Oct.-Dec. 1998), 167-207
58. Cristina Barros and Marco Buenrostro, eds., Cruces y campa: Las once y todo sereno: Tipos mexicanos, siglo XIX (Mexico City: CONACULTA; Loteria Nacional; Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1994)
59. México y sus alrededores: Colección de monumentos, trajes y paisajes (Mexico City: Decaen, 1855-56)
60. On the construction of national types in Mexico, see Ricardo Pérez Montfort, Estampas de nacionalismo popular mexicano (Mexico City: CIESAS, 1994). In this literature, photographs, paintings, and lithographs of types tend to be treated as interchangeable forms of representation, whose historical importance has more to do with image content than with the semiotic, material, and sensuous qualities of particular representational technologies
61. Registros Fotográficos, 1892-1930. Archivo Histórico Municipal de Oaxaca "Manuel R. Palacios." Of these, only the prostitute registries and photographs have received attention from historians. See especially Cuauhtémoc Medina, Vigilar y retratar: Dos momentos de la fotografía en Oaxaca (Oaxaca: Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Oaxaca; Ediciones Toledo, 1992)
62. Cuauhtémoc Medina, "Identidad o identificacion? La fotografía y la distinción de las personas. Un caso oaxaqueño," in Arte, historia e identidad en América: Visiones comparativas, ed. Gustavo Curiel, Renato González Mello, and Juana Gutiérrez Haces (Mexico City: UNAM; Instituto de Invstigaciones Estéticas, 1994), 2:577-97
63. and Alejandro Castellanos, "Ojo de luz: La fotografía en Oaxaca," in Historia del arte de Oaxaca (Oaxaca: Gobierno del Estado de Oaxaca; Instituto Oaxaqueño de las Culturas, 1997), 45-161
64. On prostitute registries and photographs elsewhere in nineteenth-century Mexico, see Aguilar Ochoa, La fotografía durante el imperio, 79-91
65. and Patricia Massé, "Photographs of Mexican Prostitutes in 1865," History of Photography 20, no. 3: 231-34
66. and Teresa Matabuena Pelaez, Algunos usos y conceptos de la fotografía durante el Porfiriato (Mexico City: Univ. Iberoamericana, 1991)
67. Empirical documentation of statistical categories was particularly important for the positivist projects of scientific governance that were popular at this time in both Mexico and France. On Mexican positivism, see Charles Hale, The Transformation of Liberalism in Late-Nineteenth-Century Mexico (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1989)
68. Mauricio Tenorio, Mexico at the World's Fairs: Crafting a Modern Nation (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1996)
69. and Leopoldo Zea, El positivismo en México: Nacimiento, apogeo y decadencia (Mexico City: FCE, 1973 [1943])
70. On population, governance, and documentation as defining features of liberal and colonial states, see, among others, Michel Foucault, History of Sexuality, vol. 1, trans. Robert Hurley (New York: Vintage, 1980)
71. Michel Foucault, "Governmentality," Ideology and Consciousness 6 (1979): 5-21
72. James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1998)
73. and Richard S. Smith, Rule by Records: Land Registration and Billage Custom in Early British Punjab (Delhi: Oxford Univ. Press, 1996)
74. Mark Overmyer-Velasquez, "Images of Modernity: The Use of Photographs in Writing the Social and Cultural History of Porfirian Oaxaca" (paper presented at the annual meetings of the American Historical Association, Boston, January 2001)
75. Indios y monumentos was never published. Martínez's published studies of Oaxacan ethnology and history include Catálogo etimológico de los nombres de los pueblos (Oaxaca: Imprenta del Estado, 1883)
76. Civilización chontal: Historia antigua de la chontalpa oaxaqueña (Mẽxico City: Imp. del Gob. Federal, 1910)
77. and Cuadra estadístico de la minería en el estado libre y soberano de Oaxaca (Mexico City: Secretaria de Fomente, 1884)
78. Antonio García Cubas, Cuadro geográfico, estadístico, descriptivo e histórico (Mexico City: Secretaría de Fomento, 1884)
79. For examples of similar Porfirian projects involving visual inventories of types, see Georgina Rodríguez Hernández, "Miradas sin redención," Luna Córnea (1997): 24-31
80. Georgina Rodríguez Hernández, "Recobrando la presencia: Fotografía indigenista mexicana en la Exposición Histórico Americana de 1892," Cuicuilco, 5, no. 13 (May-Aug. 1998): 123-44
81. Tenorio, Mexico at the World's Fairs
82. and Casey Walsh, "Statistical Knowledge of Mestizo Mexico, 1876-1920" (Departamento de Antropología, Univ. Iberamericana, ms.)
83. Martínez Gracida's manuscripts were acquired by Genaro V. Vásquez, the interim governor of Oaxaca who led the most important cultural initiative of the postrevolutionary period. It is therefore significant that the plates formed part of Vásquez's personal library and that Vásquez himself used Martinez's ethnological types to illustrate his own published work on Oaxacan ethnology. See Genaro V. Vásquez, Indios de México, Colaboración del Lic. Genaro V. Vásquez al Séptimo Congreso Científico Americano (Mexico City: Talleres Gráficos de la Nación, 1935)
84. Today Los indios oaxaqueños forms part of the Colección Genaro V. Vásquez in the Sala de Asuntos Oaxaqueños "Genaro V. Vásquez," in the Municipal Library of Oaxaca. A small selection of Martínez's ethnological plates, including the ones reproduced here, have been published in Manuel Escarza, ed., Los indios oaxaquenõs y sus monumentos arqueológicos (Oaxaca: Gob. del Estado de Oaxaca, 1986)
85. Martínez Gracida, Los indios oaxaqueños, vol. 4, plate 84
86. "There is no lack of mustaches in men of this lineage. . . . The portrait of these Indians proves, thus, that Cosijoeza had a mustache." Ibid. Although usually taken as a sign of mixed race, the issue of facial hair was hotly contested in contemporary debates about racial identity and origins of American Indians. Martínez Gracida may have been alluding to these debates, although he does not refer directly to them. As the reputed last and greatest ruler of the Zapotec kingdom, Cosijoeza was the subject of numerous poems and literary pieces, including a history by Martínez Gracida, El Rey Cosijoeza y su familia (Mexico City: Secretaria de Fomente, 1888)
87. Mitla is a town and archaeological site outside of Oaxaca City. It was a favorite place of the Oaxacan elite for picnics and social retreats. Intellectuals and historians such as Martínez Gracida frequently wrote about it as a source of Oaxacan identity. Because Martínez believed that the Zapotecs were the only Oaxacan ethnic group with a true civilization, it was important that he counter any suggestions of Mixtec presence in Mitla. During the postrevolutionary period, Mitla was a favorite subject of poems celebrating the sentimental qualities of Oaxacan identify; see, for example, Guillermo Villa, "Ruinas de Mitla," Libertad (Oaxaca), 10 Nov. 1931, p. 3
88. Teresa Luna Vargas, "El Fortín," Esplendor, 16 July 1931, p. 5
89. and Francisco Leonardo Ramos, "Mitla," Diario del Sur (Oaxaca), 26 Feb. 1928, Suplemento Literario-Musical, p. 1
90. José Antonio Gay, Historia de Oaxata (Mexico City: Porrúa, 1990 [1881])
91. For an overview of this literature, see Rene Cabrera Palomec, "La Dispersión que produce la danza: El imaginario étnico sobre los zapotecos del Istmo de Tehuantepec" (Master's thesis, Institute Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Mexico City, 2001)
92. Frederick Starr, The Indians of Southern Mexico (Chicago: Field Museum, 1899). Lang was Starr's photographer on both journeys to Oaxaca (1896 and 1899)
93. Starr, Indians, 10
94. On the postcard, see, among others, Malek Alloula, The Colonial Harem (Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1986)
95. On Mexican postcards and postcard collecting, see La tarjeta postal, Artes de México, 48 (2000)
96. Francisco Montellano, Charles B. Waite: La época de oro de las postales en México (Mexico City: Circulo de Arte, 1998)
97. Paul J. Vanderwood and Frank N. Samponaro, Border Fury: A Picture Postcard History of the Mexican Revolution and U.S. War Preparedness, 1910-1917 (Albuquerque: Univ. of New Mexico Press, 1988)
98. On Pimentel, see Francie Chassen-López, From Liberal to Revolutionary Oaxaca: The View from the South, Mexico 1867-1911 (University Park: Penn State Univ. Press, 2004)
99. on the científicos, see Charles R. Hale, Transformation of Liberalism
100. On the final years of the Porfiriato and the Sovereignty Movement in Oaxaca, see Margarita Dalton, Oaxaca: Una historia compartida (Oaxaca: Gobierno del Estado de Oaxaca, 1997), 189-210
101. Francie Chassen, "Los precursores de la revolución en Oaxaca," in La revolución en Oaxaca, 1900-1930, ed. Víctor Raúl Martínez Vásquez (Mexico City: CONACULFA, 1993), 39-104
102. Francisco José Ruíz Cervantes, La revolución en Oaxaca: El movimiento de la soberania (1915-1920) (Mexico City: FCE, 1986)
103. and Carlos Sánchez Silva, "Crisis política y contrarrevolución en Oaxaca, 1912-1914," in Martínez Vásquez, La Revolución en Oaxaca, 194-275
104. See Raúl Martínez Vásquez, De la milpa oaxaquena (Oaxaca: Colección Tintero Nocturno, 2000)
105. On women and postcard collecting, see Saloni Mathur, "Wanted: Native Views: Collecting Colonial Postcards in India," in Gender, Sexuality, and Colonial Modernities, ed. A. Burton (London: Routledge, 1999), 95-115
106. and Naomi Schor, "Cartes Postales: Representing Paris 1900," Critical Inquiry (winter 1992): 188-244
107. Debroise, Fuga mexicana, 118-19
108. and Francisco Montellano, C. B. Waite, fotógrafo: Una mirada diversa sobre el México de principios del siglo XX (Mexico City: Grijalbo; CNCA, 1999)
109. and Charles B. Waite: La época de oro
110. On the Tehuana as symbol and type, see Ricardo Pérez Montfort, "Notas sobre el estereotipo de la Tehuana," Acervos (Oaxaca) 19 (fall 2000): 45-52
111. Aída Sierrra, "La creación de un símbolo," Artes de México 49
112. La Tehuana: 17-25
113. On the image of the Isthmus and Isthmus women as savage and rebellious, see Jeffrey W. Rubin, Decentering the Regime: Ethnicity, Radicalism, and Democracy in Juchitán, Mexico (Durham: Duke Univ. Press, 1997)
114. On the charro as national type, see Ricardo Pérez Montfort, Estampas, 113-38
115. Pérez Montfort, "Charros y chinos poblanos," Luna Cornea 13 (Sept.-Dec. 1997): 42-47
116. For example, Mathieu de Fossey, Viaje a México (Mexico City: CNCA, 1994 [1832])
117. and Charles Brasseur, Viaje por el Istmo de Tehuantepec (Mexico City: FCE, 1981 [1861])
118. Francisco José Ruiz Cervantes, Oaxaca en la numismática y la filatelia (Oaxaca: Instituto de Artes Gráficos de Oaxaca, 1996)
119. The centenary celebrations in Mexico City, for example, included exhibits and events displaying costumes and types from different states and regions. On the centenary celebrations, see Zarauz López, Mexico: Fiestas civicas, familiars, laborales y nuevos festejos (Mexico City: CONACULTA, 2000), 71-73
120. On patrias chicas, see, especially, Manuel Gamio, Forjando patria (Mexico City: Porrúa, 1990 [1916]), 12-14
121. See, for example, Jane Collier, From Duty to Desire: Remaking Families in a Spanish Village (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1997)
122. Partha Chatterjee, "Colonialism, Nationalism, and Colonized Women," American Ethnologist 16, no. 4 (1989): 622-33
123. de la Cadena, Indigenous Mestizos
124. Michael Herzfeld, Ours Once More: Folklore, Ideology, and the Making of Modern Culture (Austin: Univ. of Texas Press, 1982)
125. Lata Mani, "Contentious Traditions: The Debate on Sati in Colonial India," in Recasting Women: Essays in Indian Colonial History, ed. K, Sangari and S. Vaid (New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1989), 88-126
126. Policarpo T. Sánchez, "Ligero Estudio acerca de la Raza Indígena del Estado," Revista Pedagógica (Oaxaca) 1, no. 4 (1929): 7-14. The Institutes Sociales were cultural and pedagogical training programs for teachers in the different regions of Oaxaca. Although jointly organized by the Oaxaca state Department of Public Education and the federal Ministry of Public Education, their principle focus in Oaxaca was on teaching of regional traditions and "ethnic aesthetics" to teachers from the different subregions of Oaxaca
127. On the Escuela de Acción and postrevolutionary education policies, see, among others, Mary Kay Vaughan, Cultural Politics in Revolution: Teachers, Peasants, and Schools in Mexico, 1930-1940 (Tucson: Univ. of Arizona Press, 1997)
128. Guillermo Palacios, "Post-Revolutionary Intellectuals, Rural Readings, and the Shaping of the Peasant Problem in Mexico: El Maestro Rural, 1932-34," Journal of Latin American Studies, 30 (1998): 309-39
129. and Elsie Rockwell, "School of the Revolution: Enacting and Contesting State Forms in Tlaxcala, 1910-1930," in Everyday Forms of State Formation: Revolution and the Negotiation of Rule in Modern Mexico, ed. Gilbert M. Joseph and Daniel Nugent (Durham: Duke Univ. Press, 1994), 170-208
130. Archivo General del Estado de Oaxaca, Fondos Educativos (hereafter AGEO, FE), Sccción Técnica, Caja 7, 1927-28
131. See, for example, "Propaganda cultural," no. 2, Institute Educativo Social Mixteco, Tlaxiaco, 1928, AGEO, FE, Sección Técnica, Caja 7 (1927-28) and Caja 19 (1932)
132. "Programa que seguirá la 'Compañía Artística Infantil'" AGEO, FE, Sección Administrative, Caja 69, 1930
133. In several regions of Oaxaca, the Social Institutes could draw on preexisting culturalist movements, some with their own publications; see, for example, El Aldeaño: Periódica mensual de propaganda cultural en los pueblos mixtecos (Chazumba, Oaxaca) no. 1 (1925)
134. Policarpo T. Sánchez, "Informe que Rinde al C. Lic. Genaro V. Vásquez, Gobernador Interino Constituciónal del Estado, el Jefe del Depart, de Educación Publica, sobre el Segundo Instituto Educativo Social Mixteco," AGEO, FE, Sección Técnica, Caja 7, 1927-28
135. The chief architects of Vásquez's cultural programs were the writers Alberto Vargas and Guillermo A. Esteva, the painter Alfredo Canseco Feraud, the musician Samuel Mondragon, and Policarpo T. Sánchez, whom Vásquez named director of the Oaxaca state Department of Public Education. In a move symbolic of the political force of culture at the time, Vásquez skillfully dismanded the leadership of the student organizations and unions who organized a major strike against his nationally backed administration in 1927 by offering the leaders positions in the Department of Public Education. Many of these same men (and they were all men) went on to work in the Cultural Missions, Social Institutes, and other cultural programs through which Vásquez and Sánchez would promote a unified Oaxacan cultural identity. For histories of this period, see Víctor Raúl Martínez Vásquez, Historia de la educación en Oaxaca, 1825-1930 (Oaxaca: Institute de Investigaciones Sociológicas, UABJO, 1994)
136. Víctor Raúl Martínez Vásquez, La Revolución en Oaxaca (1900-1930) (Mexico City: CONACULTA, 1993)
137. Javier Sánchez Pereyra, Historia de la educación en Oaxaca (1926-1926) (Oaxaca: Institute Estatal de Educación Pública de Oaxaca, 1995)
138. Anselmo Arellanes Meixueiro, Mutualismo y sindicalismo en Oaxaca, 1870-1930 (Oaxaca: Institute Tecnológico de Oaxaca, 1926)
139. and Anselmo Arellanes Meixueiro, Víctor Raúl Martínez Vásquez, and Francisco José Ruiz Cervantes, Oaxaca en el siglo XX: Testimonies de historia oral (Oaxaca: Ediciones Meridiano, 1988)
140. On the national context and for examples of how cultural and educational policies were played out in other states, see, among others, Alan Knight, The Mexican Revolution, vol. 2 (Lincoln: Univ. Nebraska Press, 1986)
141. and Knight, "Popular Culture and the Revolutionary State in Mexico, 1910-1940," Hispanic American Historical Review 74, no. 3: 393-444
142. Carlos Martínez Assad, El labororatorio de la Revolución: El Tabasco garridista (Mexico: Siglo XXI, 1979)
143. and Vaughan, Cultural Politics in Revolution
144. Vásquez had a particular interest in music, which he considered the expressive form closest to a "people's soul." In keeping with this view, winning entries in the music competitions were routinely printed and distributed to schoolteachers throughout Oaxaca, along with copies of Vásquez's own article entitled "Oaxacan Sentiment and Art." Many of the songs written for these competitions are the nostalgic staples of Oaxacan popular music today. On Vásquez's understanding of regional cultura, see especially Musica popular y costumbres regionales del Estado de Oaxaca (Mexico City: n.p., 1924)
145. "Dos palabras," in Música oaxaqueña: Recuerdo del banquete ofrecido por el ejército nacional al Gral. de División, Plutarco Elias Calles, en Balbuena el 8 de enero de 1930 (Mexico City: Det. del Distrito Federal, 1930)
146. Indios de México, Séptimo Congreso Científico Americano, Sección 8: Indigenistas (Mexico City: Talleres Gráficos de la Nación, 1935)
147. and "El aspecto pedagógico del folklore," Revista Pedagógica 2, nos. 7-8 (Mar.-Apr. 1930): 27-40
148. On the cultural politics of the Vásquez administration, see Guillermo Rosas Solaegui, Un hombre en el tiempo (Mexico City: B. Costa y Amigos, 1971), 126-33
149. El Mercurio, 20 Mar. 1926
150. Not surprisingly, it was also during the 1920s and early 1930s that Oaxacan studio photographers began to produce photographs of racial types for sale. Many were produced in numbered series, suggesting that people bought them as part of collections. See Poole, "Raza y retrato: Hacia una antropología de la fotografía," Cuicuilco 6, no. 16 (May-Aug. 1999): 225-52
151. and Poole, "Tipos raciales y proyectos culturales en Oaxaca, 1920-40," Acervos 16 (Apr.-June 2000): 23-29
152. "Para el viento," unsigned editorial, Evolución (Oaxaca), 18 Feb. 1923, p. 2
153. "Argumente escenificado del Homenaje Racial," El Mercurio, 20 Apr. 1932, p. 3
154. and 21 Apr. 1932, p. 2
155. In those cases where delegations disagreed with the choice of costume or cultural affiliation for their region, the Central Organizing Committee moved to enforce their selection: if necessary, they instructed, costumes were to be borrowed from other places. See for example, "Carta de Leon Olvera del Comité Organizadora del IV Centenario a Alfonso Cuella del Comité Regional de Juchila," 21 Mar. 1932, 1 f.; Archivo Histórico de la Municipalidad de Oaxaca
156. These measures were truly extraordinary at a moment when, with few exceptions, newspapers and books routinely published photographs without either citing credits or paying rights. Copies of the photographs were published and distributed through the official commemorative album (Oaxaca en e IV Centenario de su Exaltacion a la Categoria de Ciudad [Mexico City: Agustín Vega, 1932]
157. Deborah Poole, "Cultural Diversity and Racial Unity in Oaxaca: Rethinking Hybridity and the State in Post-Revolutionary México" (ms., Dept. of Anthropology, Johns Hopkins University)