Analysis of hindlimb muscle moment arms in Tyrannosaurus rex using a three-dimensional musculoskeletal computer model: Implications for stance, gait, and speed

Paleobiology

Volumn 31, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 676-701

  Hutchinson, John R ^a,b   Anderson, Frank C ^a   Blemker, Silvia S ^a   Delp, Scott L ^a  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b ROYAL VETERINARY COLLEGE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DINOSAUR; LOCOMOTION; MORPHOLOGY; MUSCLE;

ANIMALIA; AVES; DINOSAURIA; THEROPODA; TYRANNOSAURUS REX;

EID: 27244439394     PISSN: 00948373     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1666/0094-8373(2005)031[0676:AOHMMA]2.0.CO;2     Document Type: Article

References (78)

1. Alexander, R. Mc N. 1977. Allometry of the limbs of antelopes (Bovidae). Journal of Zoology 183:124-146.
2. Alexander, R. Mc N., A. S. Jayes, G. M. O. Maloiy, and E. M. Wathuta. 1981. Allometry of the leg muscles of mammals. Journal of Zoology 194:539-552.
3. An, K. N., K. Takahashi, T. P. Harrigan, and E. Y. Chao. 1984. Determination of muscle orientations and moment arms. Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 106:280-283.
4. Arnold, A. S., and S. L. Delp. 2001. Rotational moment arms of the medial hamstrings and adductors vary with femoral geometry and limb position: implications for the treatment of internally rotated gait. Journal of Biomechanics 34:437-447.
5. Arnold, A. S., S. Salinas, D. J. Asakawa, and S. L. Delp. 2000. Accuracy of muscle moment arms estimated from MRI-based musculoskeletal models of the lower extremity. Computer Aided Surgery 5:108-119.
6. Bakker, R. T. 1986. Dinosaur heresies. William Morrow, New York.
7. Bakker, R. T. 2002. Speed in tyrannosaurs. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 22(Suppl. to No. 3):34A.
8. Bennett, M. B., and G. C. Taylor. 1995. Scaling of elastic strain energy in kangaroos and the benefits of being big. Nature 378:56-59.
9. Biewener, A. A. 1989. Scaling body support in mammals: limb posture and muscle mechanics. Science 245:45-48.
10. Biewener, A. A. 1990. Biomechanics of mammalian terrestrial locomotion. Science 250:1097-1103.
11. Blanco, R. E., and G. V. Mazetta. 2001. A new approach to evaluate the cursorial ability of the giant theropod Giganotosaurus carolinii. Acta Palaeontologia Polonica 46:193-202.
12. Blob, R. W. 2001. Evolution of hindlimb posture in nonmammalian therapsids: biomechanical tests of paleontological hypotheses. Paleobiology 27:14-38.
13. Blob, R. W. and A. A. Biewener. 2001. Mechanics of limb bone loading during terrestrial locomotion in the green iguana (Iguana iguana) and American alligator (Alligator mississipiensis). Journal of Experimental Biology 204:1099-1122.
14. Brown, N. A. T., M. G. Pandy, W. L. Buford, C. E. Kawcak, and C. W. McIlwraith. 2003a. Moment arms about the carpal and metacarpophalangeal joints for flexor and extensor muscles in equine forelimbs. American Journal of Veterinary Research 64:351-357.
15. Brown, N. A. T., M. G. Pandy, C. E. Kawcak, and C. W. McIlwraith. 2003b. Force- and moment-generating capacities of muscles in the distal forelimb of the horse. Journal of Anatomy 203:101-113.
16. Bryant, H. N., and K. L. Seymour. 1990. Observations and comments on the reliability of muscle reconstruction in fossil vertebrates. Journal of Morphology 206:109-117.
17. Buford, W. L., Jr., F. M. Ivey Jr., J. D. Malone, R. M. Patterson, G. L. Peare, D. K. Nguyen, and A. A. Stewart. 1997. Muscle balance at the knee - moment arms for the normal knee and the ACL-minus knee. IEEE Transactions on Rehabilitation Engineering 5:367-379.
18. Carrano, M. T. 2000. Homoplasy and the evolution of dinosaur locomotion. Paleobiology 26:489-512.
19. Carrano, M. T., and J. R. Hutchinson. 2002. Pelvic and hindlimb musculature of Tyrannosaurus rex (Dinosauria: Theropoda). Journal of Morphology 252:207-228.
20. Charig, A. J. 1972. The evolution of the archosaur pelvis and hindlimb: an explanation in functional terms. Pp. 121-151 in K. A. Joysey and T. S. Kemp, eds. Studies in vertebrate evolution. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh.
21. Christiansen, P. 1999. Long bone scaling and limb posture in non-avian theropods: evidence for differential allometry. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 19:666-680.
22. Colbert, E. H. 1964. Relationships of the saurischian dinosaurs. American Museum Novitates 2181:1-24.
23. Delp, S. L., and J. P. Loan. 1995. A graphics-based software system to develop and analyze models of musculoskeletal structures. Computers in Biology and Medicine 25:21-34.
24. Delp, S. L., 2000. A computational framework for simulating and analyzing human and animal movement. IEEE Computing in Science and Engineering 2:46-55.
25. Delp, S. L., and F. E. Zajac. 1992. Force- and moment-generating capacity of lower-extremity muscles before and after tendon lengthening. Clinical Orthopaedics 284:247-259.
26. Delp, S. L., J. P. Loan, M. G. Hoy, F. E. Zajac, E. L. Topp, and J. M. Rosen. 1990. An interactive graphics-based model of the lower extremity to study orthopaedic surgical procedures. IEEE Transactions in Biomedical Engineering 37:757-767.
27. Delp, S. L., W. E. Hess, D. S. Hungerford, and L. C. Jones. 1999. Variation of rotation moment arms with hip flexion. Journal of Biomechanics 32:493-501.
28. Eckhoff, D. G., J. M. Bach, V. M. Spitzer, K. D. Reinig, M. M. Bagur, T. H. Baldini, D. Rubernstein, and S. Humphries. 2003. Three-dimensional morphology and kinematics of the distal part of the femur viewed in virtual reality, Part II. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 85-A:97-104.
29. Farlow, J. O., M. B. Smith, and J. M. Robinson. 1995. Body mass, bone "strength indicator," and cursorial potental of Tyrannosaurus rex. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 15:713-725.
30. Full, R. J., and A. N. Ahn. 1995. Static forces and moments generated in the insect leg: comparison of a three-dimensional musculo-skeletal computer model with experimental measurements. Journal of Experimental Biology 198:1285-1298.
31. Gans, C., and F. De Vree. 1987. Functional bases of fiber length and angulation in muscle. Journal of Morphology 192:63-85.
32. Gatesy, S. M. 1990. Caudofemoral musculature and the evolution of theropod locomotion. Paleobiology 16:170-186.
33. Henderson, D. M. 1999. Estimating the masses and centers of mass of extinct animals by 3-D mathematical slicing. Paleobiology 25:85-106.
34. Hotton, N. H., III. 1980. An alternative to dinosaur endothermy: the happy wanderers. In D. K. Thomas and E. C. Olsen, eds. A cold look at hot-blooded dinosaurs. AAAS Selected Symposium Series 28:311-350.
35. Hutchinson, J. R. 2001a. The evolution of pelvic osteology and soft tissues on the line to extant birds (Neornithes). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 131:123-168.
36. Hutchinson, J. R. 2001b. The evolution of femoral osteology and soft tissues on the line to extant birds (Neornithes). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 131:169-197.
37. Hutchinson, J. R. 2002. The evolution of hindlimb tendons and muscles on the line to crown-group birds. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A 133:1051-1086.
38. Hutchinson, J. R. 2004a. Biomechanical modeling and sensitivity analysis of bipedal running ability. I. Extant taxa. Journal of Morphology 262:421-440.
39. Hutchinson, J. R. 2004b. Biomechanical modeling and sensitivity analysis of bipedal running ability. II. Extinct taxa. Journal of Morphology 262:441-461.
40. Hutchinson, J. R., and M. Garcia. 2002. Tyrannosaurus was not a fast runner. Nature 415:1018-1021.
41. Hutchinson J. R., and S. M. Gatesy. 2000. Adductors, abductors, and the evolution of archosaur locomotion. Paleobiology 26: 734-751.
42. Kargo, W. J., and L. C. Rome. 2002. Functional morphology of proximal hindlimb muscles in the frog Rana pipiens. Journal of Experimental Biology 205:1987-2004.
43. Kargo, W. J., F. Nelson, and L. C. Rome. 2002. Jumping in frogs: assessing the design of the skeletal system by anatomically realistic modeling and forward dynamic simulation. Journal of Experimental Biology 205:1683-1702.
44. Keshner, E. A., K. D. Statler, and S. L. Delp. 1997. Kinematics of the freely moving head and neck in the alert cat. Experimental Brain Research 115:257-266.
45. Krevolin, J. L., M. G. Pandy, and J. C. Pearce. 2004. Moment arm of the patellar tendon in the human knee. Journal of Biomechanics 37:785-788.
46. Lambe, L. M. 1917. The Cretaceous carnivorous dinosaur Gorgosaurus. Memoirs of the Canadian Geological Survey 100:1-84.
47. Leahy, G. D. 2002. Speed potential of tyrannosaurs great and small. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 22(Suppl. to No. 3): 78A.
48. Lieber, R. L. 1992. Skeletal muscle structure and function: implications for rehabilitation and sports medicine. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore.
49. Lieber, R. L. 1997. Muscle fiber length and moment arm coordination during dorsi- and plantarflexion in the mouse hindlimb. Acta Anatomica 159:84-89.
50. Maganaris, C. N. 2004. Imaging-based estimates of moment arm length in intact human muscle-tendons. European Journal of Applied Physiology 91:130-139.
51. Maloiy, G. M. O., R. Mc N. Alexander, R. Njau, and A. S. Jayes. 1979. Allometry of the legs of running birds. Journal of Zoology 187:161-167.
52. Molnar, R. M., and J. O. Farlow. 1990. Carnosaur paleobiology. Pp. 210-224 in D. B. Weishampel, P. Dodson, and H. Osmólska, eds. The Dinosauria. University of California Press, Berkeley.
53. Murray, W. M., T. S. Buchanan, and S. L. Delp. 2002. Scaling of peak moment arms of elbow muscles with upper extremity bone dimensions. Journal of Biomechanics 35:19-26.
54. Newman, B. H. 1970. Stance and gait in the flesh-eating dinosaur Tyrannosaurus. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 2:119-123.
55. Osborn, H. F. 1913. Tyrannosaurus, restoration and model of the skeleton. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 32:91-92.
56. Osborn, H. F. 1916. Skeletal adaptations of Ornitholestes, Struthiomimus and Tyrannosaurus. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 35:733-771.
57. Pandy, M. G. 1999. Moment arm of a muscle force. Exercise and Sport Science Reviews 27:79-118.
58. Paul, G. S. 1988. Predatory dinosaurs of the world. Simon and Schuster, New York.
59. Paul, G. S. 1998. Limb design, function and running performance in ostrich-mimics and tyrannosaurs. Gaia 15:257-270.
60. Perle, A. 1985. Comparative myology of the pelvic-femoral region in the bipedal dinosaurs. Paleontological Journal 19:105-109.
61. Raikova R. T., and B. I. Prilutsky. 2001. Sensitivity of predicted muscle forces to parameters of the optimization-based human leg model revealed by analytical and numerical analyses. Journal of Biomechanics 34:1243-1255.
62. Rome, L. C. 1998. Some advances in integrative muscle physiology. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology B 120:51-72.
63. Romer, A. S. 1923. The pelvic musculature of saurischian dinosaurs. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 48:605-617.
64. Russell, D. A. 1972. Ostrich dinosaurs from the Late Cretaceous of Western Canada. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 9:375-402.
65. Schroeder, W. J., J. A. Zarge, and W. E. Lorensen. 1992. Decimation of triangle meshes. Computer Graphics 26:65-70.
66. Sellers, W. I., L. A. Dennis, and R. H. Crompton. 2003. Predicting the metabolic energy costs of bipedalism using evolutionary robotics. Journal of Experimental Biology 206:1127-1136.
67. Spoor, C. W., and J. L. Van Leeuwen. 1992. Knee muscle moment arms from MRI and from tendon travel. Journal of Biomechanics 25:201-206.
68. Tarsitano, S. 1983. Stance and gait in theropod dinosaurs. Acta Palaeontologia Polonica 28:251-264.
69. Thorpe, S. K. S., R. H. Crompton, M. M. Günther, R. F. Ker, and R. McN. Alexander. 1999. Dimensions and moment arms of the hind- and forelimb muscles of common chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). American Journal of Physical Anthropology 110:179-199.
70. Thulborn, R. A. 1982. Speeds and gaits of dinosaurs. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 38:227-256.
71. Thulborn, R. A. 1989. The gaits of dinosaurs. Pp. 39-50 in D. D. Gillette and M. G. Lockley, eds. Dinosaur tracks and traces. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
72. Thulborn, R. A. 1990. Dinosaur tracks. Chapman and Hall, London.
73. Van der Helm, F. C., H. E. Veeger, G. M. Pronk, L. H. Van der Woude, and R. H. Rozendal. 1992. Geometry parameters for musculoskeletal modelling of the shoulder system. Journal of Biomechanics 25:129-44.
74. Van Leeuwen, J. L. 1992. Muscle function in locomotion. Advances in Comparative and Environmental Physiology 11: 191-250.
75. Walker, A. D. 1977. Evolution of the pelvis in birds and dinosaurs. Pp. 319-358 in S. Mahala Andrews, R. S. Miles, and A. D. Walker, eds. Problems in vertebrate evolution (Linnean Society Symposium Series 4).
76. Welles, S. P. 1986. Thoughts on the origin of the Theropoda. Pp. 31-34 in K. Padian, ed. The beginning of the age of dinosaurs. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
77. Witmer, L. M. 1995. The extant phylogenetic bracket and the importance of reconstructing soft tissues in fossils. Pp. 19-33 in J. J. Thomason, ed. Functional morphology in vertebrate paleontology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
78. Zajac, F. E. 1989. Muscle and tendon: properties, models, scaling, and application to biomechanics and motor control. Critical Reviews in Biomedical Engineering 17:359-411.