Livestock, land cover, and environmental history: The Tablelands of New South Wales, Australia, 1820-1920

Annals of the Association of American Geographers

Volumn 95, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 80-111

  Butzer, Karl W ^a   Helgren, David M ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN   (United States)

^b SAN JOSE STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Australia; Climatic perturbations; Fire ecology; Gullying; Pastoral degradation; Vegetation change

Indexed keywords

CLIMATE VARIATION; COLONIALISM; ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION; ENVIRONMENTAL HISTORY; LAND COVER; LIVESTOCK FARMING; NINETEENTH CENTURY; VEGETATION DYNAMICS;

AUSTRALASIA; AUSTRALIA; NEW SOUTH WALES;

EID: 26844492517     PISSN: 00045608     EISSN: 14678306     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8306.2005.00451.x     Document Type: Review

References (162)

1. Anthill, H. C. 1965 [1815]. Journey of an excursion over the Blue or Western Mountains of New South Wales. In Fourteen journeys over the Blue Mountains, ed. G. Mackaness, 74-90. Sydney, Australia: Horwitz.
2. Arno, S. E., and S. Allison-Bunnell, 2002. Flames in our forest: Disaster or renewal? Washington, DC: Island Press.
3. AUSLIG. 1997a. Australia: Natural vegetation (1:5,000,000) (2nd ed.). Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, Australian Surveying and Land Information Group.
4. _. 1997b. Australia: Present vegetation (1;5,000,000) (2nd ed.). Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, Australian Surveying and Land Information Group.
5. Banks, J. C. 1989. A history of forest fire in the Australian Alps. In The scientific significance of the Australian Alps, ed. R. Good, 265-80. Canberra: Australian Academy of Science.
6. Barnett, E. J. 1994. A Holocene palaeoenvironmental history of Lake Alexandrina, South Australia. Journal of Palaeoclimatology 12:59-68.
7. Benson, J. 1991. The effect of 200 years of European settlement on the vegetation and flora of New South Wales, Cunninghamia 2:343-70.
8. Benson, J. S., and P. A. Redpath. 1997. The nature of pre-European vegetation in south-eastern Australia: A critique of Ryan, J. G., Ryan, J. R. and Starr, B. J. (1995). Cunninghamia 5 (2): 284-328.
9. Blumler, M. A. 1995. Invasion and transformation of California's Valley grassland, a Mediterranean analogue ecosystem. In Ecological relations in historical times: Human impact and adaptation, ed. R. A. Butlin and N. Roberts, 308-32. Oxford, U.K.: Blackwell.
10. Bolton, G. 1981. Spoils and spoilers: Australians make their environment. North Sydney, Australia: Allen &. Unwin.
11. Boon, S., and J. R. Dodson. 1992. Environmental response to land use at Lake Curlip, East Gippsland, Victoria. Australian Geographical Studies 30:206-21.
12. Boucher, S. C., and J. M. Powell. 1994. Gullying and tunnel erosion in Victoria. Australian Geographical Studies 32: 17-26.
13. Bowman, D. M. J. S. 1998. Tansley Review no. 101: The impact of Aboriginal landscape burning on the Australian biota. New Phytologist 140:385-410.
14. Boyd, W. E., B. J. Stubbs, and C. Averill. 1999. The 'grasses' of the Big Scrub district of north-eastern New South Wales: A sedimentary record of late Holocene grasslands in a subtropical forest landscape. Australian Geographer 30:331-36.
15. Bradstock, R. A., J. E. Williams, and A. M. Gill, eds. 2002. Flammable Australia: The fire regimes and biodiversity of a continent. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
16. Braithwaite, R. W. 1991. Aboriginal fire regimes of monsoonal Australia in the 19th century. Search 22:247-49.
17. Brierley, G. J., and C. Murn. 1997. European impacts on down-stream sediment transfer and bank erosion in Cobargo catchment, New South Wales, Australia. Catena 31: 119-36.
18. Brooks, A. P., and G. J. Brierley. 1997. Geomorphic response of lower Bega River to catchment disturbance, 1851-1926. Geomorpholog? 18:291-304.
19. Butlin, N. G. 1962. Distribution of the sheep population: Preliminary statistical paper, 1860-1957. In The simple fleece: Studies in the Australian wool industry, ed. A. Barnard, 281-307. Melbourne, Australia: Melbourne University Press.
20. Butzer, K. W. 1988. Cattle and sheep from Old to New Spain: Historical antecedents. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 82:543-65.
21. _. 1996. Ecology in the long view: Settlement histories, agrosystem strategies and ecological performance. Journal of Field Archaeology 23:141-50.
22. Butzer, K. W., and E. K. Butzer. 1993. The sixteenth-century environment of the Central Mexican Bajio: Archival reconstruction from colonial land grants. In Culture, place and form, ed. K. Mathewson, 89-124. Baton Rouge, LA: Geoscience and Man Publications.
23. _. 1995. Transfer of the Mediterranean livestock economy to New Spain: Adaptation and ecological consequences. In Global land use change, ed. B. L. Turner and A. Gómez Sal, 151-93. Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas.
24. _. 1997. The "natural" vegetation of the Mexican Bajio: Archival documentation of a 16th-century savanna environment. Quaternary International 43/44:161-72.
25. Butzer, K. W., and D. M. Helgren. n.d. Geomorphologic "ground truthing" of early Australian travel itineraries: Most gullies in parts of New South Wales predate European contact. Submitted for publication.
26. Cambage, R. H. 1921. Exploration between the Wingecarribee, Shoalhaven, Macquarie and Murrumbidgee rivers, Journal, Royal Australian Historical Society 7:217-60.
27. Campbell, J. F. 1923. The first decade of the Australian Agricultural Company, 1824 to 1834. Royal Australian Historical Society Journal 9:113-60.
28. Christie, E. K. 1993. Ecosystem change and land degradation. In Land degradation processes in Australia, ed. G. McTainsh and W. C. Boughton, 306-42. Melbourne, Australia: Longman Cheshire.
29. Clark, J. S., H. Cachier, J. G. Goldammer, and B. Stocks, eds. 1997. Sediment records of biomass burning and global change. Berlin: Springer.
30. Clark, R. L. 1982. Point count estimation of charcoal in pollen preparations and thin sections of sediments. Pollen and Spores 24:523-35.
31. _. 1986. Pollen as a chronometer and sediment tracer, Burrinjuck Reservoir, Australia. Hydrobiologia 143: 63-69.
32. Clark, S. S., and L. C. McLoughlin. 1986. Historical and biological evidence for fire regimes in the Sydney region prior to the arrival of Europeans: Implications for future bushland management. Australian Geographer 17:101-12.
33. Commonwealth of Australia. Department of the Environment, Sport and Territories. 1996. Australia: State of the environment 1996. Canberra: Department of the Environment, Sport and Territories.
34. Cronin, L. 1997. Key guide to Australian trees. Sydney, Australia: Reed New Holland.
35. Cunningham, A. 1825. Journal of a route from Bathurst to Liverpool Plains. In Geographical memoirs on New South Wales, ed. B. Field, 131-91. London: John Murray.
36. Cunningham, C. J. 1984. Recurring natural fires hazards: A case study of the Blue Mountains, N.S.W., Australia. Applied Geography 4:5-28.
37. _. 1996. The Blue Mountains rediscovered: Beyond the myths of early Australian exploration. Sydney, Australia: Kangaroo Press.
38. Curr, E. M. 1883. Recollections of squatting in Victoria, ed. H. Foster. Melbourne: George Robertson.
39. Currie, M. 1825. Journal of an excursion to the south of Lake George in New South Wales in 1823. In Geographical memoirs of New South Wales, ed. B. Field, 367-82. London: John Murray.
40. Dodd, J. L. 1994. Desertification and degradation in sub-Saharan Africa: The role of livestock. BioScience 44:28-34.
41. Dodson, J. R. 1986. Holocene vegetation and environments near Goulburn, New South Wales. Australian Journal of Botany 34:231-49.
42. Dodson, J. R., P. W. Greenwood, and R. L. Jones, 1986. Holocene forest and wetland vegetation dynamics at Barrington Tops, New South Wales. Journal of Biogeography 13:561-85.
43. Dodson, J. R., V. M. McRae, K. Molloy, F. Roberts, and J. D. Smith. 1993. Late Holocene human impact on two coastal environments in New South Wales, Australia: A comparison of Aboriginal and European impacts. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 2:89-100.
44. Dodson, J. R., and B. G. Thorn. 1992. Holocene vegetation history from the Hawkesbury Valley, New South Wales. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales 113 (2): 121-34.
45. Dovers, S. 1994. Still discovering Monaro: Perceptions of landscape. In Australian environmental history: Essays and cases, ed. S. Dovers, 119-40. Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press.
46. Dunlap, T. R. 1999. Nature and the English diaspora: Environment and history in the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
47. Earle, C. 1988. The myth of the Southern soil miner: Macrohistory, agricultural innovations, and environmental change. In The ends of the earth: Perspectives on modern environmental history, ed. D. Worster, 175-210. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
48. Erskine, W. D. 1986. River metamorphosis and environmental change in the Macdonald Valley, New South Wales, since 1949. Australian Geographical Studies 24:88-107.
49. _. 1994. Sand slugs generated by catastrophic floods in the Goulburn River, New South Wales. In Variability in stream erosion and sediment transport (Publication 224), ed. L. J. Olive, R. J. Loughran, and J. A. Kesby, 143-51. Wallingford, U.K.: International Association of Hydrological Sciences.
50. Erskine, W. D., and M. J. Saynor. 1996. Effects of catastrophic floods on sediment yields in southeastern Australia. In Erosion and sediment yield: Global and regional perspectives (Publication 236), ed. D. E. Walling and B. W. Webb, 381-88. Wallingford, U.K.: International Association of Hydrological Sciences.
51. Erskine, W. D., and R. F. Warner. 1988. Geomorphic effects of alternating flood and drought dominated regimes on NSW coastal rivers. In Fluvial geomorphology of Australia, ed. R. F. Warner, 223-42. Sydney, Australia: Academic Press.
52. _. 1999. Significance of river bank erosion as a sediment source in alternating flood regimes south-eastern Australia. In Fluvial processes and environmental change, ed. A. G. Brown and T. A. Quine, 139-63. Chichester, U.K.: John Wiley.
53. Eyles, R. J. 1977a. Bircham's Creek: The transition from a chain of ponds to a gully. Australian Geographical Studies 15:146-57.
54. _. 1977b. Changes in drainage networks since 1820, Southern Tablelands, N. S. W. Australian Geographer 13: 377-87.
55. _. 1977c. Erosion and land use in the Burra catchment, Queanbeyan. Journal of Soil Conservation Service of New South Waks 31:47-59.
56. Fensham, R. J. 1997. Aboriginal fire regimes in Queensland, Australia: Analysis of the explorers' record. Journal of Biogeography 24:11-22.
57. Fensham, R. J., and R. J. Fairfax, 1996. The disappearing grassy balds of the Bunya Mountains, south-eastern Queensland. Australian Journal of Botany 44:543-58.
58. _. 1997. The use of the land survey record to reconstruct pre-European vegetation patterns in the Darling Downs, Queensland, Australia. Journal of Biogeography 24:827-36.
59. Foley, J. C. 1957. Droughts in Australia: Review of records from earliest years of settlement to 1955, Bulletin 43. Melbourne: Bureau of Meteorology.
60. Fry, K. 1994. Kiola: A history of the environmental impact of European occupation, 1830-1980. In Australian environmental history: Essays and cases, ed. S. Dovers, 99-118. Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press.
61. Fryirs, K., and G. Brierley. 1998. The character and age structure of valley fills in Upper Wolumla Creek catchment, South Coast, New South Wales, Australia. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 23:271-87.
62. Gale, S. J., and R. J. Haworth. 2002. Beyond the limits of location: Human environmental disturbance prior to official European Contact in early colonial Australia. Archaeology in Oceania 37:123-36.
63. 210Pb chronology of late Holocene deposition in an eastern Australian lake basin. Quaternary Science Reviews (Quaternary Geochronology) 14:395-408.
64. Gale, S. J., and P. C. Pisanu. 2001. The late-Holocene decline of casuarinaceae in southeast Australia. The Holocene 11 (4): 485-90.
65. Gardner, W. 1854 [1857]. Production and resources of the Northern and Western Districts of New South Wales (Vol. 1). Manuscript in the Mitchell Library, State Library of New South Wales.
66. Gill, A. M. 1981. Post-settlement fire history in Victorian landscapes. In Fire and the Australian biota, ed. A. M. Gill, R. H. Groves, and I. R. Noble, 77-99. Canberra: Australian Academy of Science.
67. Gillespie, R., I. P. Prosser, E. Dlugokencky, R. J. Sparks, G. Wallace, and J. M. A. Chappell. 1992. AMS dating of alluvial sediments on the Southern Tablelands of New South Wales, Australia. Radiocarbon 34:29-36.
68. Goldney, D. C., and I. J. S. Bowie. 1990. Some management implications for the conservation of vegetation remnants and associated fauna in the central western region of New South Wales. In Australian ecosystems, ed. D. A. Saunders, A. J. M. Hopkins, and R. A. How, 427-40. Chipping Norton, NSW, Australia: Surrey Beatty and Sons.
69. Gould, R. A. 1971. Uses and effects of fire among the Western Desert Aborigines of Australia. Mankind 2:14-24.
70. Graetz, R. D., M. A. Wilson, and S. K. Campbell. 1995. Landcover disturbance over the Australian continent: A contemporary assessment. Biodiversity Series, no. 7. Canberra: Department of the Environment, Sport and Territories.
71. Green, D., G. Singh, H. Polach, D. Moss, J. Banks, and E. A. Geissler. 1988. A fine-resolution palaeoecology and palaeoclimatology from south-eastern Australia. Journal of Ecology 76:790-806.
72. Hallam, S. J. 1975. Fire and hearth. A study of Aboriginal usage and European usurpation in South-western Australia. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies.
73. Hancock, W. K. 1972. Discovering Monaro: A study of man's impact. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
74. Harriman, R. J., and E. S. Clifford, eds. 1987. Atlas of New South Wales. Sydney, Australia: Central Mapping Authority.
75. Havard, O., and W. L. Havard. 1938. Some early French visitors to the Blue Mountains and Bathurst. Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society 24:245-90.
76. Haworth, R. J., S. J. Gale, S. A. Short, and H. Heijnis. 1999. Land use and lake sedimentation on the New England Tablelands of New South Wales. Australian Geographer 30: 51-73.
77. Head, L. 1994. Landscapes socialised by fire: Post-contact changes in Aboriginal fire use in northern Australia, and implications for prehistory. Archaeology in Oceania 29:172-81.
78. _. 2000. Second nature: The history and implications of Australia as Aboriginal landscape. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
79. Heathcote, R. L. 1965. Back of Bourke: A study of land appraisal and settlement in semi-arid Australia. Melbourne, Australia: Melbourne University Press.
80. Holdaway, S. J., P. C. Fanning, M. Jones, J. Shiner, D. C. Witter, and G. Nicolls. 2002. Variability in the chronology of late Holocene Aboriginal occupation on the arid margin of southeastern Australia. Journal of Archaeological Science 29:351-63.
81. Holliday, I. 2002. A field guide to Australian trees (3rd ed.). Sydney, Australia: New Holland Publishers.
82. Hoorn, J. 1993. Exposing the lie of Terra Nullius: Joseph Lycett's Awakabal Aebum. Art and Australia 30/31:77-83.
83. Hopkins, A. J. M., R. A. How, and D. A. Saunders. 1990. Managing Australia's environment: Directions for the future, In Australian ecosystems, ed. D. A. Saunders, A. J. M. Hopkins, and R. A. How, 579-83. Chipping Norton, NSW, Australia: Surrey Beatty and Sons.
84. Horton, D. 2000. The pure state of nature: Sacred cows, destructive myths and the environment. Sydney, Australia: Allen and Unwin.
85. Hügel Baron, C. von. 1994. New Holland Journal November 1833-October 1834, trans. and ed. D. Clark. Melbourne, Australia: Melbourne University Press.
86. Jeans, D. N. 1972. An historical geography of New South Wales to 1901. Sydney, Australia: Reed Education.
87. Johnson, A. G. 2000. Fine resolution palaeoecology confirms anthropogenic impact during Late Holocene in the Lower Hawkesbury Valley, NSW. Australian Geographer 31:209-35.
88. Kahn, L., and B. Heard. 1997. Pasture plants of the slopes and tablelands of NSW. Armidale, NSW, Australia: Department of Land and Water Conservation.
89. Kershaw, A. P., D. Bulman, and J. R. Busby. 1994. An examination of modern and pre-European settlement pollen samples from southeastern Australia. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 82:83-96.
90. Kershaw, A. P., J. S. Clark, A. M. Gill, and D. M. D'Costa. 2002. A history of fire in Australia. In Flammable Australia, ed. R. A. Bradstock, J. E. Williams, and A. M. Gill, 1-25. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
91. Knox, J. C. 1999. Long-term episodic changes in magnitudes and frequencies of floods in the upper Mississippi Valley. In Environmental processes and environmental change, ed. S. G. Brown and T. A. Quine, 255-82. Chichester, U.K.: John Wiley.
92. Kodela, P. G., and J. R. Dodson. 1988. A late Holocene vegetation and fire record from Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park, New South Wales. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales 110:317-26.
93. Kohen, J. L. 1995. Aboriginal environmental impacts. Sydney, Australia: University of New South Wales Press.
94. Kovac, M., B. W. Murphy, and J. W. Lawrie. 1990. Soil landscapes of the Bathurst 1:250,000 Sheet. Sydney, Australia: Soil Conservation Service of New South Wales.
95. Lane, R. 1997. Oral histories and scientific knowledge in understanding environmental change: A case study in the Tumut Region, NSW. Australian Geographical Studies 35: 195-205.
96. Lavorel, S. 2003. Global change, fire, society and the planet. Global Change Newsletter 53:2-6.
97. Lee, Ida. 1925. Early explorers in Australia, from the log-books and journals. London: Methuen. (pp. 122-618 include most of Alan Cunningham's journals, mainly verbatim.)
98. Leichhardt, L. 1968. The letters of F. W. Ludwig Leichhardt. Vol. 2, 2nd ser., Vol. 134. Cambridge, U.K.: The Hakluyt Society.
99. Lewis, H. 1989. Ecological and technological knowledge of fire: Aborigines versus park rangers in Northern Australia. American Anthropokgist 91:940-61.
100. Lhotsky, J. 1835. A Journey from Sydney to the Australian Alps, undertaken in the months of January, February and March 1834. Facsimile ed. A. Andrews 1979. Hobart, Tasmania, Australia: Blubber Head Press.
101. Loughran, R. J., and G. L. Elliott. 1996. Rates of soil erosion in Australia determined by the caesium-137 technique: A national reconnaissance survey. In Erosion and sediment yield: Global and regional perspectives (Publication 236), ed. D. E. Walling and B. W. Webb, 275-82, Wallingford, U.K.: International Association of Hydrological Sciences.
102. Lourandos, H. 1997. Continent of hunter-gatherers: New perspectives in Australian prehistory. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
103. Lowenthal, D. 1997. Empires and ecologies: Reflections on environmental history. In Ecology and empire: Environmental history of settler societies, eds. T. Griffiths and L. Robin, 229-36. Newcastle, U.K.: Keele University Press.
104. Ludwig, J. A., and D. J. Tongway, eds. 1997. Landscape ecology: Function and management. Collingwood, Victoria, Australia: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization.
105. Lunney, D., and T. Leary. 1988. The impact on native mammals of land-use changes and exotic species in the Bega district of New South Wales since settlement. Australian Journal of Ecology 13:67-92.
106. Mackellar, D. 1990. I love a sunburnt country: The diaries of Dorothea Mackellar, ed. J. Brunsdon. North Ryde, NSW, Australia: Angus and Robertson.
107. MacKenzie, J. M. 1997. Empire and the ecological apocalypse: The historiography of the imperial environment. In Ecology and empire: Environmental history of settler societies, ed. T. Griffiths and L. Robin, 215-28. Keele, U.K.: Keele University Press.
108. Melville, E. G. K. 1992. A plague of sheep: Environmental consequences of the Conquest of Mexico. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
109. Meredith, L. A. 1846. Notes and sketches of New South Wales during a residence in that colony from 1839 to 1844. London: John Murray.
110. Miller, G. H., J. W. Magee, B. J. Johnson, M. L. Fogel, N. A. Spooner, M. T. McCulloch, and L. K. Ayliffe. 1999. Pleistocene extinction of Genyornis newtoni: Human impact on Australian megafauna. Science 283:205-08.
111. Mitchell, T. L. 1838. Three expeditions into the interior of eastern Australia (Vol. 1). London: T. and W. Boone.
112. Mooney, S. D., and J. R. Dodson. 2001. A comparison of the environmental changes of the post-European period with those of the preceding 2000 years at Lake Keilambete, south-western Victoria. Australian Geographer 32: 163-79.
113. Morcom, L. A., and M. E. Westbrooke. 1998. The pre-settlement vegetation of the western and central Wimmera plains of Victoria, Australia. Australian Geographical Studies 36:273-88.
114. Mott, J. J., and R. H. Groves. 1994. Natural and derived grasslands. In Australian vegetation (2nd ed.), ed. R. H. Groves, 369-92. Cambridge, U.K: Cambridge University Press.
115. Neil, D. T., and P. Fogarty. 1991. Land use and sediment yield on the Southern Tablelands of New South Wales. Australian Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 4:33-39.
116. Nicholson, P. H. 1981. Fire and the Australian Aborigine-An enigma. In Fire and the Australian biota, ed. A. M. Gill, R. H. Groves, and I. R. Noble, 55-76. Canberra: Australian Academy of Science.
117. Northcote, K. H., G. D. Hubble, R. F. Isbell, C. H. Thompson, and E. Bettenay. 1975. A description of Australian soils. Canberra: Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization.
118. Norton, B. E. 1972. Grasslands of the New England Tableland in the nineteenth century. Armidale and District Historical Society: Journal and Proceedings 15, 1-13.
119. Oilier, C. D. 1982. The Great Escarpment of eastern Australia: Tectonic and geomorphic significance. Journal of the Geological Society of Australia 29:13-23.
120. Oxley, J. 1820. Journals of two expeditions into the interior of New South Wales. London: John Murray.
121. Page, K. J., and Y. R. Garden. 1998. Channel adjustment following the crossing of a threshold: Tarcutta Creek, South-eastern Australia. Australian Geographical Studies 36: 289-311.
122. Parsons, W. J. 1981. The history of introduced weeds. In Plants and man in Australia, ed. D. J. Carr and S. G. M. Carr, 179-93. Sydney, Australia: Academic Press.
123. Paton, T. R., G. S. Humphreys, and P. B. Mitchell. 1995. Soils: A new global view. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
124. Peacock, E. 1998. Historical and applied perspectives on prehistoric land use in eastern North America. Environment and History 4:1-29.
125. Perry, T. M. 1963. Australia's first frontier: The spread of settlement in New South Wales 1788-1829. London: Cambridge University Press.
126. Plumb, T., ed. 1982. Atlas of Australian Resources. 3rd ser, vol. III Agriculture. Canberra: Division of National Mapping.
127. Powell, J. M. 1988. An historical geography of modern Australia. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
128. _. 2000. Revisiting the Australian experience: Transmillennial conjurings. Geographical Review 90:1-17.
129. Prosser, I. P. 1990. Fire, humans and denudation at Wangrah Creek, New South Wales. Australian Geographical Studies 28:77-95.
130. _. 1991. A comparison of post and present episodes of gully erosion at Wangrah Creek, Southern Tablelands, New South Wales. Australian Geographical Studies 29:139-54.
131. Prosser, I. P., J. Chappell, and R. Gillespie. 1994. Holocene valley aggradation and gully erosion in headwater catchments, south-eastern highlands of Australia. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 19:465-80.
132. Pulsford, I. F., J. C. G. Banks, and S. Hodges. 1992. Environmental history: An example from the white cypress pine forests in the Australian Alps. Revue de Géographie alpine 1992 (2-3): 65-95.
133. Pyne, S. J. 1991. Burning bush: A fire history of Australia. New York: Holt.
134. Reynolds, J. F., and M. S. Smith. 2002. Global desertification: Do humans cause deserts? Berlin: Dahlem University Press.
135. Roberts, R. G., T. F. Flannery, L. K. Ayliffe, H. Yoshida, J. M. Olley, G. J. Prideaux, G. M. Laslett, A. Baynes, M. A. Smith, R. Jones, and B. L. Smith. 2001. New ages for the last Australian megafauna: Continent-wide extinction about 46,000 years ago. Science 292:1888-92.
136. Robertson, J. G. 1897 [1853]. Letter No. 9. In Letters from Victorian pioneers, ed. T. F. Bride, 22-35. Melbourne, Australia: Trustees of the Public Library.
137. Russell-Smith, J., D. Lucas, M. Gapindi, B. Gumbunuka, N. Kapirigi, G. Namingum, K. Lucas, P. Giuliani, and G. Chaloupka. 1997. Aboriginal resource utilization and fire management practice in western Arnhem Land, monsoonal Northern Australia: Notes for prehistory, lessons for the future. Human Ecology 25:159-95.
138. Ryan, J. G., J. R. Ryan, and B. J. Starr. 1995. The Australian landscape-Observations of explorers and early settlers. Wagga Wagga, NSW Australia: Murrumbidgee Catchment Management Committee, C/O Agricultural Research Institute.
139. Saunders, D. A., A. J. M. Hopkins, and R. A. How, eds. 1990. Australian ecosystems: 200 years of utilization, degradation and reconstruction. Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia 16. Chipping Norton, NSW, Australia: Surrey Beatty and Sons.
140. Saynor, M. J., R. J. Loughran, W. D. Erskine, and P. F. Scott. 1994. Sediment movement on hillslopes measured by caesium-137 and erosion pins. In Variability in stream erosion and sediment transport (Publication 223), ed. L. J. Olive, R. J. Loughran, and J. A. Kesby, 87-93. Wallingford, U.K.: International Association of Hydrological Sciences.
141. Scheffer, M., S. Carpenter, J. A. Foley, C. Folke, and B. Walker, 2001. Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems. Nature 413:591-96.
142. Singh, G., and E. A. Geissler. 1985. Late Cainozoic history of vegetation, fire, lake levels and climate at Lake George, New South Wales, Australia. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London B311:379-447.
143. Smith, M. S., and G. Pickup. 1993. Out of Africa, looking in: Understanding vegetation change. In Rangeland ecology at disequilibrium, ed. R. H. Bahnke, I. Scoones, and C. Kerven, 196-226. London: Overseas Development Institute.
144. Starr, B. 1989. Anecdotal and relic evidence of the history of gully erosion and sediment movement in the Michelago Creek catchment area. Australian Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 2 (3): 26-31.
145. Stocking, M. 1996. Soil erosion: Breaking new ground. In The lie of the land: Challenging received wisdom on the African environment, ed. M. Leach and R. Mearns, 140-54. Oxford, U.K.: Currey.
146. Strzelecki, P. E. de. 1845. Physical description of New South Wales and Van Diemen's land. London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longman.
147. Sturt, C. 1834. Two expeditions into the interior of Southern Australia during the years 1828, 1829, 1830 and 1831 (2nd ed.). London: Smith, Elder.
148. Taylor, S. G. 1990. Naturalness: The concept and its applications to Australian ecosystems. In Australian ecosystems, ed. D. A. Saunders, A. J. M. Hopkins, and R. A. How, 411-18. Chipping Norton, NSW, Australia: Surrey Beatty and Sons.
149. Trimble, S. W., and P. Crosson. 2000. U S. soil erosion ratesMyth and reality. Science 289:248-50.
150. Vale, T. R. ed. 2002. Fire, native peoples, and the natural landscape. Washington, DC: Island Press.
151. Vigilante, T. 2001. Analysis of explorers' records of Aboriginal landscape burning in the Kimberley region of Western Australia. Australian Geographical Studies 3 (2): 135-55.
152. Walker, B. H. 1993. Rangeland ecology: Understanding and managing change. Ambio 22:80-87.
153. Wasson, R. J. 1994. Annual and decadal variation of sediment yield in Australia, and some global comparisons. In Variability in stream erosion and sediment transport (Publication 224), ed. L. J. Olive, R. J. Loughran, and J. A. Kesby, 269-79. Wallingford, U.K.: International Association of Hydrological Sciences.
154. Wasson, R. J., R. K. Mazari, B. Starr, and G. Clifton. 1998. The recent history of erosion and sedimentation on the Southern Tablelands of southeastern Australia: Sediment flux dominated by channel incision. Geomorphology 24:291-308.
155. Wasson, R. J., L. J. Olive, and C. J. Rosewell. 1996. Rates of erosion and sediment transport in Australia. In Erosion and sediment yield: Global and regional perspectives (Publication 236), ed. D. E. Walling and B. W. Webb, 139-48. Wallingford, U.K.: International Association of Hydrological Sciences.
156. Wheeler, D. J. B., S. W. L. Jacobs, and B. E. Norton. 1982. Grasses of New South Wales. Armidale, NSW: University of New England.
157. White, M. E. 1997. Listen ... our land is crying: Australia's environment, problems and solutions. East Roseville, NSW: Kangaroo Press.
158. Williams, M., M. McCarthy, and G. Pickup. 1995. Desertification, drought and Landcare: Australia's role in an international convention to combat desertification. Australian Geographer 26:23-32.
159. Williams, O. B. 1962. The Riverina and its pastoral industry, 1860-1869. In The simple fleece: Studies in the Australian wool industry, ed. A. Barnard, 411-34. Melbourne, Australia: Melbourne University Press.
160. Worster, D. 1979. Dust Bowl: The Southern Plains in the 1930s. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press.
161. Wray, R. A. L., R. W. Young, and D. M. Price. 1993. Cainozoic heritage in the modern landscape near Bungonia, southern New South Wales. Australian Geographer 24:45-61.
162. Young, A. R. M. 1996. Environmental Change in Australia since 1788. Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press.