Contrast-induced nephropathy: A review

Cardiovascular Revascularization Medicine

Volumn 6, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 82-88

  Sanaei Ardekani, Mohammad ^a   Movahed, Mohammad Reza ^b   Movafagh, Shahrzad ^a   Ghahramani, Nasrollah ^c  

^a GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c PENN STATE COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Bicarbonate infusion; CIN; N Acetylcysteine; Prophylactic hydration

Indexed keywords

ACETAZOLAMIDE; ACETYLCYSTEINE; AMINOPHYLLINE; ASCORBIC ACID; ATRIAL NATRIURETIC FACTOR; BICARBONATE; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CONTRAST MEDIUM; DIURETIC AGENT; DOPAMINE; FENOLDOPAM; FUROSEMIDE; GADODIAMIDE; GADOLINIUM; GADOLINIUM PENTETATE MEGLUMINE; IODINATED CONTRAST MEDIUM; IRON; MANNITOL; OXYGEN RADICAL; SODIUM CHLORIDE; THEOPHYLLINE; VASODILATOR AGENT; WATER;

ALKALINIZATION; ANAPHYLAXIS; ANGIOCARDIOGRAPHY; CLINICAL TRIAL; DIGITAL SUBTRACTION ANGIOGRAPHY; DIURESIS; HEART CATHETERIZATION; HEMODIALYSIS; HEMOFILTRATION; HUMAN; HYDRATION; INCIDENCE; KIDNEY ARTERY STENOSIS; KIDNEY FAILURE; KIDNEY PROXIMAL TUBULE; META ANALYSIS; NEPHROTOXICITY; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PH; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RENAL PROTECTION; REVIEW; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW;

EID: 26044441610     PISSN: 15538389     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.carrev.2005.07.004     Document Type: Article

References (117)

1. CS Rihal, SC Textor, DE Grill, PB Berger, HH Ting, PJ Best, M Singh, MR Bell, GW Barsness, V Mathew, KN Garratt, and DR Holmes Incidence and prognostic importance of acute renal failure after percutaneous coronary intervention Circulation 105 19 2002 2259 2264
2. KJ Berg Nephrotoxicity related to contrast media Scand J Urol Nephrol 34 5 2000 317 322
3. ST Cochran, WS Wong, and DJ Roe Predicting angiography-induced acute renal function impairment: clinical risk model AJR Am J Roentgenol 141 5 1983 1027 1033
4. SK Morcos, HS Thomsen, and JA Webb Contrast-media-induced nephrotoxicity: a consensus report. Contrast Media Safety Committee, European Society of Urogenital Radiology (ESUR) Eur Radiol 9 8 1999 1602 1613
5. MM Waybill, and PN Waybill Contrast media-induced nephrotoxicity: identification of patients at risk and algorithms for prevention J Vasc Interv Radiol 12 1 2001 3 9
6. R Solomon Contrast-medium-induced acute renal failure Kidney Int 53 1 1998 230 242
7. PS Parfrey, SM Griffiths, BJ Barrett, MD Paul, M Genge, J Withers, N Farid, and PJ McManamon Contrast material-induced renal failure in patients with diabetes mellitus, renal insufficiency, or both. A prospective controlled study N Engl J Med 320 3 1989 143 149
8. MW Rich, and CA Crecelius Incidence, risk factors and clinical course of acute renal insufficiency after cardiac catheterization in patients 70 years of age or older: a prospective study Arch Intern Med 150 6 1990 1237 1242
9. SJ Schwab, MA Hlatky, KS Pieper, CJ Davidson, KG Morris, TN Skelton, and TM Bashore Contrast nephrotoxicity: a randomized controlled trial of a nonionic and an ionic radiographic contrast agent N Engl J Med 320 3 1989 149 153
10. MA Stevens, PA McCullough, KJ Tobin, JP Speck, DC Westveer, DA Guido-Allen, GC Timmis, and WW O'Neill A prospective randomized trial of prevention measures in patients at high risk for contrast nephropathy: results of the PRINCE Study. Prevention of Radiocontrast Induced Nephropathy Clinical Evaluation J Am Coll Cardiol 33 2 1999 403 411
11. SH Hou, DA Bushinsky, JB Wish, JJ Cohen, and JT Harrington Hospital-acquired renal insufficiency a prospective study Am J Med 74 2 1983 243 248
12. PA McCullough, R Wolyn, LL Rocher, RN Levin, and WW O'Neill Acute renal failure after coronary intervention: incidence, risk factors and relationship to mortality Am J Med 103 5 1997 368 375
13. CJ Davidson, M Hlatky, KG Morris, K Pieper, TN Skelton, SJ Schwab, and TM Bashore Cardiovascular and renal toxicity of a nonionic radiographic contrast agent after cardiac catheterization. A prospective trial Ann Intern Med 110 2 1989 119 124
14. RN Foley, PS Parfrey, and MJ Sarnak Clinical epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in chronic renal disease Am J Kidney Dis 32 5 1998 S112 S119
15. PA McCullough Cardiorenal risk: an important clinical intersection Rev Cardiovasc Med 3 2 2002 71 76
16. JA Tumlin, A Wang, PT Murray, and VS Mathur Fenoldopam mesylate blocks reductions in renal plasma flow after radiocontrast dye infusion: a pilot trial in the prevention of contrast nephropathy Am Heart J 143 5 2002 894 903
17. R Safirstein, L Andrade, and JM Vieira Acetylcysteine and nephrotoxic effects of radiographic contrast agents-a new use for an old drug N Engl J Med 343 3 2000 210 212
18. A Wang, T Holcslaw, and TM Bashore Exacerbation of radiocontrast nephrotoxicity by endothelin receptor antagonism Kidney Int 57 4 2000 1675 1680
19. MR Rudnick, S Goldfarb, L Wexler, PA Ludbrook, MJ Murphy, EF Halpern, JA Hill, M Winniford, MB Cohen, and DB VanFossen Nephrotoxicity of ionic and nonionic contrast media in 1196 patients: a randomized trial. The Iohexol Cooperative Study Kidney Int 47 1 1995 254 261
20. AS Berns Nephrotoxicity of contrast media Kidney Int 36 4 1989 730 740
21. R Birck, S Krzossok, F Markowetz, P Schnulle, FJ van der Woude, and C Braun Acetylcysteine for prevention of contrast nephropathy: meta-analysis Lancet 362 9384 2003 598 603
22. M Tepel, M van der Giet, C Schwarzfeld, U Laufer, D Liermann, and W Zidek Prevention of radiographic-contrast-agent-induced reductions in renal function by acetylcysteine N Engl J Med 343 3 2000 180 184
23. EM Levy, CM Viscoli, and RI Horwitz The effect of acute renal failure on mortality JAMA 275 19 1996 1489 1494
24. N Powe, R Moore, and E Steinberg Adverse reactions to contrast media: factors that determine the cost of treatment AJR Am J Roentgenol 161 5 1993 1089 1095
25. L Gruberg, GS Mintz, R Mehran, G Gangas, AJ Lansky, KM Kent, AD Pichard, LF Satler, and MB Leon The prognostic implications of further renal function deterioration within 48 h of interventional coronary procedures in patients with pre-existent chronic renal insufficiency J Am Coll Cardiol 36 5 2000 1542 1548
26. R Solomon, C Werner, D Mann, J D'Elia, and P Silva Effects of saline, mannitol and furosemide, on acute decreases in renal function induced by radiocontrast agents N Engl J Med 331 21 1994 1416 1420
27. CP Taliercio, RE Vlietstra, DM Ilstrup, JC Burnett, KK Menke, SL Stensrud, and DR Holmes A randomized comparison of the nephrotoxicity of iopamidol and diatrizoate in high risk patients undergoing cardiac angiography J Am Coll Cardiol 17 2 1991 384 390
28. EM Lautin, NJ Freeman, AH Schoenfeld, CW Bakal, N Haramati, AC Friedman, JL Lautin, S Braha, and EG Kadish Radiocontrast-associated renal dysfunction: a comparison of lower-osmolality and conventional high-osmolality contrast media AJR Am J Roentgenol 157 1 1991 59 65
29. BJ Barrett Contrast nephrotoxicity J Am Soc Nephrol 5 2 1994 125 137
30. BJ Barrett, and EJ Carlisle Metaanalysis of the relative nephrotoxicity of high- and low-osmolality iodinated contrast media Radiology 188 1 1993 171 178
31. KG Shyu, JJ Cheng, and P Kuan Acetylcysteine protects against acute renal damage in patients with abnormal renal function undergoing a coronary procedure J Am Coll Cardiol 40 8 2002 1383 1388
32. JD Durham, C Caputo, J Dokko, T Zaharakis, M Pahlavan, J Keltz, P Dutka, K Marzo, JK Maesaka, and S Fishbane A randomized controlled trial of N-acetylcysteine to prevent contrast nephropathy in cardiac angiography Kidney Int 62 6 2002 2202 2207
33. C Mueller, G Buerkle, HJ Buettner, J Petersen, AP Perruchoud, U Eriksson, S Marsch, and H Roskamm Prevention of contrast media-associated nephropathy: randomized comparison of 2 hydration regimens in 1620 patients undergoing coronary angioplasty Arch Intern Med 162 3 2002 329 336
34. C Briguori, F Manganelli, P Scarpato, PP Elia, B Golia, G Riviezzo, S Lepore, M Librera, B Villari, A Colombo, and B Ricciardelli Acetylcysteine and contrast agent-associated nephrotoxicity J Am Coll Cardiol 40 2 2002 298 303
35. CS Baker, A Wragg, S Kumar, R De Palma, LR Baker, and CJ Knight A rapid protocol for the prevention of contrast-induced renal dysfunction: the RAPPID study J Am Coll Cardiol 41 12 2003 2114 2118
36. J Kay, WH Chow, TM Chan, SK Lo, OH Kwok, A Yip, K Fan, CH Lee, and WF Lam Acetylcysteine for prevention of acute deterioration of renal function following elective coronary angiography and intervention: a randomized controlled trial JAMA 289 5 2003 553 558
37. LJ Diaz-Sandoval, BD Kosowsky, and DW Losordo Acetylcysteine to prevent angiography-related renal tissue injury (the APART Trial) Am J Cardiol 89 3 2002 356 358
38. BD MacNeill, SA Harding, H Bazari, KK Patton, P Colon-Hernadez, D DeJoseph, and IK Jang Prophylaxis of contrast-induced nephropathy in patients undergoing coronary angiography Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 60 4 2003 458 461
39. GA Porter Contrast-associated nephropathy: presentation, pathophysiology and management Miner Electrolyte Metab 20 4 1994 232 243
40. GL Bakris, and JC Burnett A role of calcium in radiocontrast-induced reductions in renal hemodynamics Kidney Int 27 2 1985 465 468
41. D Russo, R Minutolo, B Cianciaruso, B Memoli, G Conte, and L De Nicola Early effects of contrast media on renal hemodynamics and tubular function in chronic renal failure J Am Soc Nephrol 6 5 1995 1451 1458
42. B Flemming, E Seeliger, T Wronski, K Steer, N Arenz, and PB Persson Oxygen and renal hemodynamics in the conscious rat J Am Soc Nephrol 11 1 2000 18 24
43. SN Heyman, M Brezis, FH Epstein, K Spokes, P Silva, and S Rosen Early renal medullary hypoxic injury from radiocontrast and indomethacin Kidney Int 40 4 1991 632 642
44. P Liss, A Nygren, U Olsson, HR Ulfendahl, and U Erikson Effects of contrast media and mannitol on renal medullary blood flow and red cell aggregation in the rat kidney Kidney Int 49 5 1996 1268 1275
45. R Baliga, N Ueda, PD Walker, and SV Shah Oxidant mechanisms in toxic acute renal failure Am J Kidney Dis 29 3 1997 465 777
46. GL Bakris, N Lass, AO Gaber, JD Jones, and JC Burnett Radiocontrast medium-induced declines in renal function: a role for oxygen free radicals Am J Physiol 258 1 Pt 2 1990 F115 F120
47. T Yoshioka, A Fogo, and JK Beckman Reduced activity of antioxidant enzymes underlies contrast media-induced renal injury in volume depletion Kidney Int 41 4 1992 1008 1015
48. Z Parvez, MA Rahman, and R Moncada Contrast media-induced lipid peroxidation in the rat kidney Invest Radiol 24 9 1989 697 702
49. G Bakris, N Lass, and D Glock Renal hemodynamics in radiocontrast medium-induced renal dysfunction Kidney Int 56 1 1999 206 210
50. S Heyman, J Reichman, and M Brezis Pathophysiology of radiocontrast nephropathy: a role for medullary hypoxia Invest Radiol 34 11 1999 685 691
51. M Brezis, and S Rosen Hypoxia of the renal medulla-its implications for disease N Engl J Med 332 10 1995 647 655
52. RE Katholi, WT Woods, GJ Taylor, CL Deitrick, KA Womack, CR Katholi, and WP McCann Oxygen free radicals and contrast nephropathy Am J Kidney Dis 32 1 1998 64 71
53. 2 sensing J Biol Chem 275 33 2000 25130 25138
54. LA Dada, NS Chandel, KM Ridge, C Pedemonte, AM Bertorello, and JI Sznajder Hypoxia-induced endocytosis of Na,K-ATPase in alveolar epithelial cells is mediated by mitochondrial reactive oxygen species and PKC-zeta J Clin Invest 111 7 2003 1057 1064
55. SM Loitsch, C von Mallinckrodt, S Kippenberger, D Steinhilber, TO Wagner, and J Bargon Reactive oxygen intermediates are involved in IL-8 production induced by hyperosmotic stress in human bronchial epithelial cells Biochem Biophys Res Commun 276 2 2000 571 578
56. S Qin, J Ding, T Takano, and H Yamamura Involvement of receptor aggregation and reactive oxygen species in osmotic stress-induced Syk activation in B cells Biochem Biophys Res Commun 262 1 1999 231 236
57. B Halliwell, and JM Gutteridge Role of free radicals and catalytic metal ions in human disease: an overview Methods Enzymol 186 1990 1 85
58. CE Cooper Nitric oxide and iron proteins Biochim Biophys Acta 1411 2-3 1999 290 309
59. P Biemond, HG van Eijk, AJ Swaak, and JF Koster Iron mobilization from ferritin by superoxide derived from stimulated polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Possible mechanism in inflammation diseases J Clin Invest 73 6 1984 1576 1579
60. B Halliwell Superoxide-dependent formation of hydroxyl radicals in the presence of iron chelates: is it a mechanism for hydroxyl radical production in biochemical systems? FEBS Lett 92 2 1978 321 326
61. CC Winterbourn Hydroxyl radical production in body fluids. Roles of metal ions, ascorbate and superoxide Biochem J 198 1 1981 125 131
62. JM Gutteridge, DA Rowley, and B Halliwell Superoxide-dependent formation of hydroxyl radicals in the presence of iron salts. Detection of "free" iron in biological systems by using bleomycin-dependent degradation of DNA Biochem J 199 1 1981 263 265
63. RR Crichton Structure and function of ferritin Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 12 1 1973 57 65
64. T Jones, R Spencer, and C Walsh Mechanism and kinetics of iron release from ferritin by dihydroflavins and dihydroflavin analogues Biochemistry 17 19 1978 4011 4017
65. DJ Leehey, DJ Palubiak, S Chebrolu, and R Agarwal Sodium ferric gluconate causes oxidative stress but not acute renal injury in patients with chronic kidney disease: a pilot study Nephrol Dial Transplant 20 2005 135 140
66. HH Neumayer, W Junge, A Kufner, and A Wenning Prevention of radiocontrast-media-induced nephrotoxicity by the calcium channel blocker nitrendipinea prospective randomised clinical trial Nephrol Dial Transplant 4 12 1989 1030 1036
67. CM Erley, SH Duda, S Schlepckow, J Koehler, PE Huppert, WL Strohmaier, A Bohle, T Risler, and H Osswald Adenosine antagonist theophylline prevents the reduction of glomerular filtration rate after contrast media application Kidney Int 45 5 1994 1425 1431
68. NW Shammas, MJ Kapalis, M Harris, D McKinney, and EP Coyne Aminophylline does not protect against radiocontrast nephropathy in patients undergoing percutaneous angiographic procedures J Invasive Cardiol 13 11 2001 738 740
69. BR Kurnik, RL Allgren, FC Genter, RJ Solomon, ER Bates, and LS Weisberg Prospective study of atrial natriuretic peptide for the prevention of radiocontrast-induced nephropathy Am J Kid Dis 31 4 1998 674 680
70. A Kapoor, N Sinha, RK Sharma, S Shrivastava, S Radhakrishnan, PK Goel, and R Bajaj Use of dopamine in prevention of contrast induced acute renal failure-a randomised study Int J Cardiol 53 3 1996 233 236
71. GW Stone, PA McCullough, JA Tumlin, NE Lepor, H Madyoon, P Murray, A Wang, AA Chu, GL Schaer, M Stevens, RL Wilensky, WW O'Neill, and CONTRAST Investigators Fenoldopam mesylate for the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy: a randomized controlled trial JAMA 290 17 2003 2284 2291
72. C Briguori, A Colombo, F Airoldi, A Violante, A Castelli, P Balestrieri, P Paolo Elia, B Golia, S Lepore, G Riviezzo, P Scarpato, M Librera, A Focaccio, and B Ricciardelli N-Acetylcysteine versus fenoldopam mesylate to prevent contrast agent-associated nephrotoxicity J Am Coll Cardiol 44 4 2004 762 765
73. RL Eisenberg, WO Bank, and MW Hedgock Renal failure after major angiography can be avoided with hydration AJR Am J Roentgenol 136 5 1981 859 861
74. LS Weisberg, PB Kurnik, and BRC Kurnik Risk of radiocontrast nephropathy in patients with and without diabetes mellitus Kidney Int 45 1 1994 259 265
75. SS Hans, BA Hans, R Dhillon, C Dmuchowski, and J Glover Effect of dopamine on renal function after arteriography in patients with pre-existing renal insufficiency Am Surg 64 5 1998 432 436
76. A Nygren Contrast media and regional renal blood flow. A study of the effects of ionic and non-ionic monomeric and dimeric contrast media in the rat Acta Radiol Suppl 378 Pt 3 1992 123 135
77. RE Neiberger, and JC Passmore Effects of dopamine on canine intrarenal blood flow distribution during hemorrhage Kidney Int 15 3 1979 219 226
78. GM Tadros, JA Malik, CL Manske, BL Kasiske, SE Dickinson, CA Herzog, RF Wilson, G Das, and CJ Panetta Iso-osmolar radio contrast iodixanol in patients with chronic kidney disease J Invasive Cardiol 17 2005 211 215
79. JA Kaufman, SC Geller, and AC Waltman Renal insufficiency: gadopentetate dimeglumine as a radiographic contrast agent during peripheral vascular interventional procedures Radiology 198 1996 579 581
80. WJ Matchett, DR McFarland, DK Russell, DM Sailors, and MM Moursi Azotemia: gadopentetate dimeglumine as contrast agent at digital subtraction angiography Radiology 201 1996 569 571
81. J Rieger, T Sitter, M Toepfer, U Linsenmaier, KJ Pfeifer, and H Schiffl Gadolinium as an alternative contrast agent for diagnostic and interventional angiographic procedures in patients with impaired renal function Nephrol Dial Transplant 17 2002 824 828
82. FD Hammer, PP Gofette, J Malaise, and P Mathurin Gadolinium dimeglumine: an alternative contrast agent for digital subtraction angiography Eur Radiol 9 1999 128 136
83. 2-enhanced renal angiography for diagnosis and percutaneous treatment Radiology 210 1999 663 672
84. K Spargias, E Alexopoulos, S Kyrzopoulos, P Iacovis, DC Greenwood, A Manginas, V Voudris, G Pavlides, CE Buller, D Kremastinos, and DV Cokkinos Ascorbic acid prevents contrast-mediated nephropathy in patients with renal dysfunction undergoing coronary angiography or intervention Circulation 110 18 2004 2837 2842
85. B Vogt, P Ferrari, C Schonholzer, HP Marti, M Mohaupt, M Wiederkehr, C Cereghetti, A Serra, U Huynh-Do, D Uehlinger, and FJ Frey Prophylactic hemodialysis after radiocontrast media in patients with renal insufficiency is potentially harmful Am J Med 111 2001 692 698
86. G Marenzi, I Marana, G Lauri, E Assanelli, M Grazi, J Campodonico, D Trabattoni, F Fabbiocchi, P Montorsi, and AL Bartorelli The prevention of radiocontrast-agent-induced nephropathy by hemofiltration N Engl J Med 349 14 2003 1333 1340
87. J DiMari, J Megyesi, N Udvarhelyi, P Price, R Davis, and R Safirstein N-Acetyl cysteine ameliorates ischemic renal failure Am J Physiol 272 1997 F292 F298
88. PN Cunningham, HM Dyanov, P Park, J Wang, KA Newell, and RJ Quigg Acute renal failure in endotoxemia is caused by TNF acting directly on TNF receptor-1 in kidney J Immunol 168 11 2002 5817 5823
89. M Toborek, SW Barger, MP Mattson, CJ McClain, and B Hennig Role of glutathione redox cycle in TNF-alpha-mediated endothelial cell dysfunction Atherosclerosis 117 2 1995 179 188
90. S Allaqaband, R Tumuluri, AM Malik, A Gupta, P Volkert, Y Shalev, and TK Bajwa Prospective randomized study of N-acetylcysteine, fenoldopam and saline for prevention of radiocontrast-induced nephropathy Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 57 3 2002 279 283
91. SM Bagshaw, and WA Ghali Acetylcysteine for prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy after intravascular angiography: a systematic review and meta-analysis BMC Med 2 1 2004 38
92. GR Bernard, AP Wheeler, MM Arons, PE Morris, HL Paz, JA Russell, and PE Wright A trial of antioxidants N-acetylcysteine and procysteine in ARDS. The Antioxidant in ARDS Study Group Chest 112 1 1997 164 172
93. TJ Meine, and JB Washam N-Acetylcysteine to prevent contrast nephropathy Am Heart J 147 3 2004 440 441
94. AV Kshirsagar, C Poole, A Mottl, D Shoham, N Franceschini, G Tudor, M Agrawal, C Denu-Ciocca, E Magnus Ohman, and WF Finn N-Acetylcysteine for the prevention of radiocontrast induced nephropathy: a meta-analysis of prospective controlled trials J Am Soc Nephrol 15 3 2004 761 769
95. N Pannu, B Manns, H Lee, and M Tonelli Systematic review of the impact of N-acetylcysteine on contrast nephropathy Kidney Int 65 4 2004 1366 1374
96. B Hultberg, A Andersson, P Masson, M Larson, and A Tunek Plasma homocysteine and thiol compound fractions after oral administration of N-acetylcysteine Scand J Clin Lab Invest 54 6 1994 417 422
97. JG Webb, GE Pate, KH Humphries, CE Buller, S Shalansky, A Al Shamari, A Sutander, T Williams, RS Fox, and A Levin A randomized controlled trial of intravenous N-acetylcysteine for the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy after cardiac catheterization: lack of effect Am Heart J 148 3 2004 422 429
98. U Hoffmann, M Fischereder, B Kruger, W Drobnik, and BK Kramer The value of N-acetylcysteine in the prevention of radiocontrast agent-induced nephropathy seems questionable J Am Soc Nephrol 15 2 2004 407 410
99. DW Cockcroft, and MH Gault Prediction of creatinine clearance from serum creatinine Nephron 16 1 1976 31 41
100. MR Holdiness Clinical pharmacokinetics of N-acetylcysteine Clin Pharmacokinet 20 2 1991 123 134
101. L Borgstrom, B Kagedal, and O Paulsen Pharmacokinetics of N-acetylcysteine in man Eur J Clin Pharmacol 31 2 1986 217 222
102. SE Miner, V Dzavik, P Nguyen-Ho, R Richardson, J Mitchell, D Atchison, P Seidelin, P Daly, J Ross, PR McLaughlin, D Ing, P Lewycky, A Barolet, and L Schwartz N-Acetylcysteine reduces contrast-associated nephropathy but not clinical events during long-term follow-up Am Heart J 148 4 2004 690 695
103. L De Caro, A Ghizzi, R Costa, A Longo, GP Ventresca, and E Lodola Pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of oral acetylcysteine in healthy volunteers Arzneimittelforschung 39 3 1989 382 386
104. M Maeder, M Klein, T Fehr, and H Rickli Contrast nephropathy: review focusing on prevention J Am Coll Cardiol 44 9 2004 1763 1771
105. M Billinger, OM Hess, and B Meier Prevention of contrast-induced renal dysfunction by N-acetylcysteine: truth or myth? Eur Heart J 25 3 2004 188 189
106. HS Thomsen Guidelines for contrast media from the European Society of Urogenital Radiology AJR Am J Roentgenol 181 6 2003 1463 1471
107. GJ Merten, WP Burgess, and LV Gray Prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy with sodium bicarbonate a randomized controlled trial JAMA 291 19 2004 2328 2334
108. RA Greenwald Handbook of methods for oxygen radical research 1985 CRC Press Florida
109. BM Brenner Brenner & Rector's The kidney 2004 WB Saunders Philadelphia, PA
110. M Novikov, B Molitoris, S Campos, M Hosford, K Stantz, Y Liang, G Hutchins, and RN Hellman Renoprotective properties of acetazolamide in a rat model of contrast media induced renal failure [abstract] J Am Soc Nephrol 14 2003 345
111. JL Teruel, R Marcen, JA Herrero, C Felipe, and J Ortuno An easy and effective procedure to prevent radiocontrast agent nephrotoxicity in high-risk patients Nephron 51 2 1989 282
112. P Aspelin, P Aubry, SG Fransson, R Strasser, R Willenbrock, and KJ Berg Nephrotoxicity in high-risk patients study of iso-osmolar and low-osmolar non-ionic contrast media study investigators. Nephrotoxic effects in high-risk patients undergoing angiography N Engl J Med 348 6 2003 491 499
113. JL Atkins Effect of sodium bicarbonate preloading on ischemic renal failure Nephron 44 1 1986 70 74
114. H Sporer, F Lang, H Oberleithner, R Greger, and P Deetjen Inefficacy of bicarbonate infusions on the course of postischaemic acute renal failure in the rat Eur J Clin Invest 11 4 1981 311 315
115. L Minarsch Renal protection in the cath lad: a novel therapeutic device for high-risk patients undergoing PCI Catheter Lab Dig 13 3 2005 70 71
116. H Madyoon, P Teirstein, D Baim, L Croushore, E Anderson, and V Mathur Differential effects between intravenous and local renal delivery of fenoldopam on renal function and blood pressure: a randomized, controlled trial [abstract] Am J Cardiol 2004 TCT-51
117. MR Movahed, G Kassab, and SY Molloi Successful removal of iodine contrast from coronary sinus in swine during coronary angiography for prevention of contrast induced nephropathy. Annual Meeting American Society for Cardiac Angiography and Intervention [abstract] Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 62 2004 97