Generations of memory: Remembering partition in India/Pakistan and Israel/Palestine

Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East

Volumn 25, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 89-110

  Greenberg, Jonathan D ^a  

^a STANFORD LAW SCHOOL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

MEMORY; POLITICAL CONFLICT;

ASIA; EASTERN HEMISPHERE; EURASIA; INDIA; ISRAEL; MIDDLE EAST; PAKISTAN; PALESTINE; SOUTH ASIA; WORLD;

EID: 25444517620     PISSN: 1089201X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1215/1089201X-25-1-89     Document Type: Review

References (150)

1. The two epigraphs come from the following sources: (1) M. M. Mirza and S. Bakht, eds., Azadi ke Mujahyd (Lahore: Jang, 1989), 16,
2. cited in Ian Talbot, "Literature and the Human Drama of the 1947 Partition," in Region and Partition: Bengal, Punjab, and the Partition of the Subcontinent, ed. Ian Talbot and Gurharpal Singh (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 246, 252;
3. and (2) Ha'aretz staff, "Hanegbi Warns: 'The Assassin Is Already among Us,'" Ha'aretz, 7 July 2004.
4. See Jonathan D. Greenberg, "Divided Lands, Phantom Limbs: Partition in the Indian Subcontinent, Palestine, China, and Korea," Journal of International Affairs 57 (2004): 7-27.
5. Maurice Halbwachs, On Collective Memory, ed. Lewis A. Coser (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992);
6. see also Nancy Wood, Vectors of Memory: Legacies of Trauma in Postwar Europe (Oxford: Berg, 1999), 1.
7. Because I focus on the 1947 partition of the subcontinent, this article does not specifically address the 1971 Pakistani civil war, the transformation of East Pakistan into an independent Bangladesh, or the memory of either partition among Bangladeshis.
8. Eva Hoffman, After Such Knowledge: Memory, History, and the Legacy of the Holocaust (New York: Public Affairs, 2004), 103. My reference to "Israelis and Palestinians" is a shorthand, as it does not acknowledge the fact that a significant percentage of Palestinian Arabs are Israeli citizens, and a significant percentage of Israeli citizens are Palestinian Arabs.
9. See Urvashi Butalia, The other Side of Silence: Voices from the Partition of India (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2000), 3;
10. see also Gyanendra Pandey, Remembering Partition: Violence, Nationalism, and History in India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 88-91.
11. Avishai Margalit, The Ethics of Memory (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), 125.
12. See dictionary.oed.com/.
13. E. M. S. Namboodiripad, "The Opposition and the Left," in Frontline, 9-22 August 1997 (from the publishers of The Hindu), www.frontlineonnet.com/fl1416/14160180.htm.
14. Cited in Joya Chatterji, "The Making of a Borderline: The Radcliffe Award for Bengal," in Talbot and Singh, Region and Partition, 194n1.
15. Chatterji, "Making of a Borderline," 194.
16. Cited in Stanley Wolpert, A New History of India, 6th ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 347.
17. Pankaj Mishra, "The Other Face of Fanaticism," New York Times Magazine, 2 February 2003, sacw.insaf.net/DC/ CommunalismCollection/ArticlesArchive/pmishraFeb2003.
18. Desmond Stewart, Theodore Herzl: Artist and Politician (New York: Quartet Books, 1974), cited in www.salaam.co.uk/knowledge/biography/ viewentry.php?id=39;
19. see also www.geocities.com/hvf_win/insight.htm.
20. Jamal Al-Husayni, "Testimony on Palestinian Arab Reaction to the UNSCOP Proposals," in Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A History with Documents, 4th ed., ed. Charles D. Smith (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2001), 217.
21. Gideon Levi, "Apartheid Wall," 1 May 2003, Palestinian Initiative for the Promotion of Global Dialogue and Democracy (MIFTAH), www.miftah.org/display.cfm?Docld=1994&Categoryld=5.
22. Margalit, Ethics of Memory, 126.
23. Ibid., 130.
24. I b i d.
25. "'Unilateral' Message of Bab-e-Pakistan," Daily Times (Lahore, Pakistan), 4 January 2004, www.dailytimes.com.pk/ default.asp?date=1%2F4%2F2004.
26. Clifford Geertz, "The Integrative Revolution: Primordial Sentiments and Civil Politics in the New States," in The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic, 1973), 255-310.
27. Ibid., 278.
28. Rashid Khalidi, Palestinian Identity: The Construction of Modern National Consciousness (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), 186-209.
29. L. P. Zamora, The Useable Past: The Imagination of History in Recent Fiction of the Americas (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
30. Pandey, Remembering Partition, 47-48.
31. Ibid., 45-46.
32. Amnon Raz-Krakotzkin, "History Textbooks and the Limits of Israeli Consciousness," in Israeli Historical Revisionism: From Left to Right, ed. Anita Shapira and Derek J. Penslar (London: Case, 2003), 161.
33. Elie Podeh, The Arab-Israeli Conflict in Israeli History Textbooks, 1948-2000 (Westport, CT: Bergin and Garvey, 2002), 105.
34. See Rashid Khalidi, "The Palestinians and 1948: The Underlying Causes of Failure," in The War for Palestine: Rewriting the History of 1948, ed. Eugene L. Rogan and Avi Shlaim (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 12-36.
35. Veena Das, "Violence and the Work of Time," in Signifying Identities: Anthropological Perspectives on Boundaries and Contested Values, ed. Anthony P. Cohen (London: Routledge, 2000), 61.
36. Ibid. An important exception to the collective silence Das describes is suggested by haunting works of fiction by South Asian writers. In the Indian context, these include fiction by Rajinder Singh Bedi, Krishan Chander, Kartar Singh Duggal, Charman Nahal, Amrita Pritam, Bhisham Sahni, Kirpal Singh. In Pakistan these include fictional works by Shahid Ahmad, A. Hameed, Intizar Husain, Bapsi Sidhwa, and especially the Urdu stories of Saadat Hassan Manto.
37. See Ian Talbot, "Literature and the Human Drama of the 1947 Partition," in Talbot and Singh, Region and Partition, 228-52.
38. See also Saadat Hassan Manto, Mottled Dawn: Fifty Sketches and Stories of Partition (New Delhi: Penguin, 1997).
39. Veena Das, Critical Events: An Anthropological Perspective on Contemporary India (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), 188.
40. Das, "Violence and the Work of Time," 61.
41. Das, Critical Events, 192.
42. Butalia, Other Side of Silence, 40.
43. Bregman, Israel's Wars, 1947-93 (London: Routledge, 2000), 25.
44. I b i d.
45. George E. Bisharat, "Exile to Compatriot: Transformations in the Social Identity of Palestinian Refugees in the West Bank," in Culture, Power, Place: Explorations in Critical Anthropology, ed. Akhil Gupta and James Ferguson (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1997), 219.
46. Meron Benvenisti, Sacred Landscape: The Buried History of the Holy Land since 1948 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), 21-22.
47. Ibid., 19.
48. Das, Critical Events, 188.
49. Das, "Violence and the Work of Time," 67.
50. Margalit, Ethics of Memory, 62.
51. Das, "Violence and the Work of Time," 61.
52. Raja Shehadeh, Strangers in the House: Coming of Age in Occupied Palestine (New York: Penguin, 2002), 3.
53. Edward W. Said, After the Last Sky: Palestinian Lives (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), 38;
54. see also Mohammad Tarbush, Reflections of a Palestinian (Washington, DC: American-Arab Affairs Council, 1986).
55. Salim Tamari, "Narratives of Exile," in Palestine-Israel Journal of Politics, Economics, and Culture: Narratives of 1948 9, no. 4 (2002): 103.
56. Bisharat, "Exile to Compatriot," 214.
57. Ibid., 224-25.
58. Cited by David K. Shipler, Arabs and Jews: Wounded Spirits in a Promised Land (New York: Times Books, 1986), 202-3.
59. Eviatar Zerubavel, Recovered Roots: Collective Memory and the Making of Israeli National Tradition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 23.
60. Ibid., 13, 43, 54, 68.
61. Senesh's remains, buried in the "martyrs" section of the Jewish cemetery in Budapest, were disinterred and brought to Israel for burial in the National Military Cemetery on Mount Herzl, the most prominent national site of commemoration and memorial.
62. Michael Walzer, "History and National Liberation," in Shapira and Penslar, Israeli Historical Revisionism, 3.
63. Hemda Ben-Yehuda and Shmuel Sandler, The Arab-Israeli Conflict Transformed: Fifty Years of Interstate and Ethnic Crises (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002), 99.
64. Khalidi, "Palestinians and 1948," 30.
65. Khalidi, Palestinian Identity, 194-95.
66. See www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/Modern%20History/Israel%20at%2050/ Remembrance%20Day-Independence%20Day%20-%20Selected%20Readin.
67. See www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/mfaarchive/2000_2009/2004/4/ Israel%20Independence%20Day%202004.
68. See www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/Modern%20History/Israel%20at%2050/ Remembrance%20Day-Independence%20Day%20-%20Selected%20Readin.
69. BADIL Resource Center, Al-Nakba: The Continuing Catastrophe, Occasional Bulletin No. 17, May 2004, www.badil.org/Publications/ Bulletins/Bulletin-17.htm.
70. See, for example, Palestinian Authority Chairman Yasir Arafat's 2003 Nakba Day address: "The great imperialistic Zionist conspiracy against our Arab nation and against our homeland Palestine reached its accursed peak on May 15, 1948. On that cursed day the State of Israel was established by means of weapons and imperialistic conspiracy, on the ruins of our homeland Palestine. Our people were expelled from [our] homeland, and [were] slaughtered in exile, dispersion, and the refugee camps" (Al-Hayat Al-Jadida [Palestinian Authority], 16 May 2003;
71. MEMRI Special Dispatch 507, 28 May 2003, www.memri.org/bin/ articles.cgi?Area=sd&ID=SP50703;
72. "Arafat Stresses Right of Return, Palestinian Strategic Peace Option," Palestine Media Center, 17 May 2003, in Al-Jazeerah.info, www.aljazeerah.info/News%20archives/ 2003%20News%20archives/May%202003%20News/18%20n/ Arafat%20StresseS%20Right%20of%20Return,%20Palestinian%20Strategic %20Peace%20Option.htm).
73. Hoffman, After Such Knowledge, 103.
74. Sebastian Conrad, "Entangled Memories: Versions of the Past in Germany and Japan," Journal of Contemporary History 38 (2003): 85.
75. This is not to argue that the mass violence and dislocation of partition in either setting compares, in scale or comprehensiveness, industrialization of killing, or totality of evil, to the Nazi genocide. V. S. Naipaul's statement (in an otherwise compelling book) that the killings and expulsions of 1947 India/Pakistan represents "as great a holocaust as that caused by Nazi Germany" strikes me as unhelpful (V. S. Naipaul, India: A Wounded Civilization [1976; repr., New York: Vintage, 2003], 143).
76. Some Palestinians and Israelis (and propagandists among their respective supporters) have accused the other community of "Nazi" or "Nazi-like" terror and atrocity; these accusations often suggest anti-Semitic or anti-Arab racist provocations. For example, the terms Zionist, Nazi Zionist, Zionist enemy, and Nazi enemy are used interchangeably in the Hamas Charter of the Islamic Resistance Movement (in conjunction with references to the "Protocols of the Elders of Zion") to refer to "the Jews." See Shaul Mishal and Avraham Sela, The Palestinian Hamas: Vision, Violence, and Coexistence (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), 175-99.
77. Marianne Hirsch, Family Frames: Photography, Narrative, and Postmemory (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997).
78. "In my reading, post-memory is distinguished from memory by generational distance and from history by deep personal connection. Postmemory is a powerful and very particular form of memory precisely because its connection to its object or source is mediated not through recollection but through an imaginative investment and creation" (22). I first learned of Hirsch's book from Carol Bardenstein's review of Raja Shehadeh's Strangers in the House: Coming of Age in Occupied Palestine, Journal of Palestine Studies 32, no. 2 (2003): 106-8.
79. E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York: Vintage, 1963);
80. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Versa, 1983) (Anderson has an American as well as British background and education);
81. Eric Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990);
82. Keith Jenkins, Re-thinking History (1991; repr., London: Routledge, 2003).
83. Jenkins refers to the French philosopher Jean-François Lyotard's conception of postmodernism as "witnessing the 'death of centres' and of displaying 'incredulity toward metanarratives'" - themes encountered repeatedly in revisionist scholarship by historians of each region in the 1980s and 1990s. Thus one can usefully situate their work in a scholarly context across national boundaries described by Jenkins as "doing history in the post-modern world" (Re-thinking History, 71).
84. Re-thinking History is rather ironically described by Alun Munslow as "now officially a classic text" (Munslow, preface to Re-thinking History, xiv).
85. Kan San Jun, Sekai (1997), 188,
86. cited in Conrad, "Entangled Memories," 98.
87. Conrad, "Entangled Memories," 86.
88. See David Ludden, "A Brief History of Subalternality," in Reading Subaltern Studies: Critical History, Contested Meaning, and the Globalization of South Asia, ed. David Ludden (London: Anthem, 2002), 1-39.
89. Aijaz Ahmad, "'Tryst with Destiny': Free and Divided," in Lineages of the Present: Ideology and Politics in Contemporary South Asia (London: Verso, 2000), 3.
90. Chatterji, "Making of a Borderline," 168.
91. I b i d.
92. Ahmad, "Tryst with Destiny," 16.
93. Mushirul Hasan, Legacy of a Divided Nation: India's Muslims since Independence (London: Hurst, 1997);
94. see also Mushirul Hasan, ed., India's Partition: Process, Strategy, and Mobilization (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1993).
95. Shashi Tharoor, Nehru: The Invention of India (New York: Arcade, 2003), 176.
96. Ibid., 236.
97. Gyanendra Pandey, "The Prose of Otherness," in Subaltern Studies VIII, ed. David Arnold and David Hardiman (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1994), 188-221;
98. and Pandey, Remembering Partition.
99. Asim Roy, "The High Politics of India's Partition: The Revisionist Perspective," in Hasan, India's Partition, 131.
100. Ayesha Jalal, The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League, and the Demand for Pakistan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
101. Ibid., 4.
102. Ibid., 246.
103. Akbar S. Ahmed, Jinnah, Pakistan, and Islamic Identity: The Search for Saladin (London: Routledge, 1997).
104. Yunas Samad, "Reflections on Partition: Pakistan Perspective," in Talbot and Singh, Region and Partition, 375, 379-80.
105. I borrow this phrase from Conrad, "Entangled Memories," 95.
106. See Yoav Gelber, "The Status of Zionist and Israeli History in Israeli Universities," in Shapira and Penslar, Israeli Historical Revisionism, 127.
107. Benny Morris, The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947-1949 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
108. It was first published in Hebrew and Arabic in 1991. In 2004 Cambridge University Press published a revised and substantially updated version, The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004).
109. Benny Morris, "Revisiting the Palestinian exodus of 1948," in Rogan and Shlaim, War for Palestine, 38.
110. See, for example, Benny Morris, "For the Record," Guardian, 14 January 2004, www.guardian.co.uk/g2/story/ 0,3604,1122425,00.html.
111. Compare Efraim Karsh, "Benny Morris and the Reign of Error," Middle East Quarterly 6 (1999), www.meforum.org/article/466,
112. and Daniel Polisar, "Making History," Azure: Ideas for the Jewish Nation (Jerusalem: Shalem Center, Spring 5760/2000), www.shalem.org.il/azure/9-editor.html;
113. with Baruch Kimmerling, "Benny Morris's Shocking Interview," History News Network, 26 January 2004, hnn.us/articles/3166.html,
114. and Joel Beinin, "No More Tears: Benny Morris and the Road Back from Liberal Zionism," Middle East Report 230 (spring 2004), www.merip.org/mer/mer230/230_beinin.html.
115. See, for example, Efraim Karsh, Fabricating Israeli History: The "New Historians" (1997; repr., London: Case, 2000);
116. see also Yoram Hazony, "The End of Zionism?" Azure: Ideas for the Jewish Nation (Jerusalem: Shalem Center, Summer 5756/1996).
117. For a useful introduction to contemporary debates in Israeli historiography, see Shapira and Penslar, Israeli Historical Revisionism;
118. and Tom Segev, Elvis in Jerusalem: Post-Zionism and the Americanization of Israel (New York: Metropolitan, 2001).
119. Walzer, "History and National Liberation," 1.
120. Walter Laqueur, A History of Zionism (New York: Schocken, 2003), xx.
121. Khalidi, Palestinian Identity, 261n11,
122. citing Rosemary Sayigh, Palestinians: From Peasants to Revolutionaries (London: Zed, 1979), 168-79.
123. Khalidi, Palestinian Identity, 261n11.
124. Tamari, "Narratives of Exile," 102.
125. Much of this work comes from Western-assimilated academics, including faculty in prestigious U.S. universities, and research affiliated with the Institute for Palestine Studies (based in Beirut, Paris, and Washington). But Palestinian historiography, at least to some extent challenging received narratives of the Nakba and its meaning, also has been authored by second- and third-generation Palestinian scholars based in the West Bank (including Birzeit University, Bethlehem University, and the Institute for Jerusalem Studies in Ramallah) and Israel itself (including the Haifa-based Arab Center for Applied Social Research, and Hebrew University).
126. See www.palestine-studies.org/final/en/index.html; www.palestine-studies.org/final/en/journals/jour_item.php?id=1. IPS also publishes additional, equally noteworthy journals of Palestinian studies and historiography in Arabic (Majallat al-Dirasat al-Filastiniyah) and French (Revue d'études palestiniennes).
127. Palestine-Israel Journal of Politics, Economics, and Culture, www.pij.org/index.php. The journal describes itself as "the only independent, non-profit quarterly publication co-published and produced by Israelis and Palestinians, as an explicitly joint venture promoting dialogue." Of course, to the extent that Palestinian scholars participate in a "co-publication" and "joint venture" with Israeli counterparts, they are from the outset making a number of assumptions that implicitly criticize, if not reject, the absolutist narratives and "frozen slides" of the previous generation: that Israelis "exist" as "Israelis"; that Palestinians and Israelis can participate in collaborative intellectual discourse; that at least one explicit objective of Palestinian scholarship and historiography should be to "promote dialogue" between the opposing national communities; and that it is acceptable, and meaningful, to talk about "Palestine-Israel"
128. Eugene L. Rogan and Avi Shlaim, The War for Palestine: Rewriting the History of 1948 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001). The publication of this volume represents an effort by a second generation of mature Israeli and Palestinian to present a collaborative re-visioning of the history of Palestine's partition from multiple national perspectives - an enterprise that could not have been imagined in earlier decades.
129. The same is true for the second-generation revisionist Israeli scholars, whose work is published side by side with Palestinian colleagues, in a collaborative effort that could not have existed in the immediate decades following the Nakba and the establishment of the Israeli state. To some extent, at least, both sets of changes were put in motion by PLO chairman Yasir Arafat's "declaration of independence" speech in Algiers and the Palestinian National Council's official adoption of a "two-state solution" strategy, in November 1988 (although, in turn, those events also reflect prior changes in Palestinian society).
130. Ziad Abu-Zayyad, "The Palestinian Right of Return: A Realistic Approach," Palestine-Israel Journal of Politics, Economics, and Culture, no. 2 (spring 1994):74. In this article (written in a hopeful moment, immediately following the signing of the Oslo accords), Zayyad suggests an approach to the fundamental problem of Palestinian refugees that could scarcely have been imagined, let alone presented, by a Palestinian intellectual of the initial Nakba generation: "The circumstances under which the Palestinian refugees have lived since 1948, and the suffering which they have endured and are still enduring, have forced many of them to view their return as the acquisition of national independence and dignity, and not necessarily as a literal return. In other words, Palestinians continue to believe that they are entitled to their claim to the Right of Return, but they are prepared to bring it to the negotiating table. This claim can be satisfied either through the actual return of a mutually acceptable number of refugees, or a symbolic number of them, or through compensation, or even through the implementation of any other option agreed upon through the negotiations on a comprehensive settlement to the Palestinian-Israeli conflict" (77). Ten years later, after great bloodshed in both communities, I do not know if Zayyad's views on this core issue have changed.
131. See, for example, Nur Masalha, "The Historical Roots of the Palestinian Refugee Question," in Palestinian Refugees: The Right of Return, ed. Naseer Aruri (London: Pluto, 2001).
132. Rashid Khalidi, "The Palestinians and 1948: The Underlying Causes of Failure," in Rogan and Shlaim, War for Palestine, 31.
133. Ibid., 29.
134. Ibid., 29-31.
135. Edward W. Said, "Afterward: The Consequences of 1948," in Rogan and Shlaim, War for Palestine, 208.
136. Ibid., 216.
137. Edward W. Said, "Introduction: The Right of Return at Last," in Aruri, Palestinian Refugees, 1, 5.
138. Said, "Afterword," 209.
139. Ibid., 214. Said praises "the emergence of new critical voices, here and there, in the Israeli and Arab worlds (including diasporas)," including "the Israeli 'new historians,' their Arab counterparts and, among many of the younger area studies specialists in the West, those whose work is openly revisionist and politically engaged" (217). Referring to the Israeli historian Ze'ev Sternhell's critique of the formative nationalist "pioneering ideology" of Ben-Gurion's Israeli state, Said attacks "the mirror image of Zionist corporatism" in Baathism, Nasserism, and Arab nationalism generally. Like the Zionist conception of the new revitalized Israeli Jew, Arab nationalist states promoted ideas of "revival, the new Arab individual, the emergence and birth of the new polity, etc."; "even in the emphasis on Arab unity in Nasserism one feels that a core of human individualism and agency is missing" (216).
140. See www.palestine-studies.org/final/en/journals/jour_item.php?id=4.
141. Salim Tamari, "Bourgeois Nostalgia and the Abandoned City," Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 23 (2003): 173, 178.
142. David Ben-Gurion, "Mi-Maamad le-am (From Class to Peoplehood)" (Tel Aviv, 1931), 306,
143. cited in Anita Shapira, "The Strategies of Historical Revisionism," in Shapira and Penslar, Israeli Historical Revisionism, 73, 76.
144. In the Palestinian case, the theme of intergenerational rebellion infuses the leadership and politics of the 1987-93 intifada, as well as the still-unfolding "second intifada" that began after Ariel Sharon's visit to the Haram al-Sharif in September 2000. This rebellion is intensified by a rise in support for Hamas, Islamic Jihad, and other Islamist groups, representing perhaps the most potent and explosive form of generational rebellion in Palestinian society: rebellion against the secular socialist framework of national liberation, as defined by Arafat's PLO, in favor of more militant forms of Muslim identity, jihad (Islamic struggle, or holy war), and shahadat (martyrdom). Ironically, the powerful renaissance of religious nationalism within Palestinian society mirrors the dramatically increased convergence of Jewish orthodoxy, fundamentalism, and nationalism in Israeli society, including the rise of the Mizrahi religious party Shas, the messianic Gush Emunim (the Bloc of the Faithful), and the religious-Zionist settler movement during the same period. In the Palestinian and Israeli cases, these religious revivalist/nationalist movements expressed pent-up resentment against perceived discrimination against religious communities by dominant nationalist "partition generation" ideologies and institutions of each society. Similar processes can be identified in the rise ofthe Hindutva movement, resurgence of the RSS and Bharatiya Janata Party in India, as well as the religious nationalism of the Muhajir Qaumi movement, the Islamization campaigns of Zia ul-Haq, and the proliferation of Kashmir jihadi groups in Pakistan.
145. A. H. Nayyar and Ahmad Salim, eds., The Subtle Subversion: The State of Curricula and Textbooks in Pakistan (Urdu, English, Social Studies, and Civics) (Islamabad: Sustainable Development Policy Institute, 2002-3), www.sdpi.org/what%275↗w/reporton/ State%20of%20Curr&TextBooks.pdf;
146. Delhi Historians Group, Communalisation of Education, 2001, cyber_banglao.tripod.com/Delhi_Historian.html;
147. B. G. Verghese, "Myth and Hate as History," Hindu, 23 June 2004, www.hindu.com/2004/06/23/stories/2004062301721000.htm.
148. See www.un.org/unrwa/refugees/wheredo.html.
149. Said, "Afterword," 207;
150. and Said, "Right of Return at Last," 1.