The epidemiology of smoking during pregnancy: Smoking prevalence, maternal characteristics, and pregnancy outcomes

Nicotine and Tobacco Research

Volumn 6, Issue SUPPL. 2, 2004, Pages

  Cnattingius, Sven ^a  

^a KAROLINSKA INSTITUTE   (Sweden)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BEHAVIOR DISORDER; CHILD BEHAVIOR; CIGARETTE SMOKING; CLINICAL STUDY; DEMOGRAPHY; ECTOPIC PREGNANCY; FETUS RISK; HUMAN; INDUSTRIALIZATION; INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RETARDATION; OUTCOMES RESEARCH; PLACENTA PREVIA; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY DISORDER; PREMATURITY; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RANDOMIZATION; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SOLUTIO PLACENTAE; SPONTANEOUS ABORTION; STILLBIRTH; SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME;

ADULT; EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES; FEMALE; HUMANS; INFANT, NEWBORN; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY COMPLICATIONS; PREGNANCY OUTCOME; PREVALENCE; RISK FACTORS; SMOKING; SMOKING CESSATION;

EID: 2542479064     PISSN: 14622203     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/14622200410001669187     Document Type: Review

References (154)

1. Adami, J., Glimelius, B., Cnattingius, S., Ekbom, A., Zahm, S. H., Linet, M., & Zack, M. (1996). Maternal and perinatal factors associated with non-Hodgkin's lymphoma among children. International Journal of Cancer, 65(6), 774-777.
2. Ananth, C. V., Smulian, J. C., & Vintzileos, A. M. (1999). Incidence of placental abruption in relation to cigarette smoking and hypertensive disorders during pregnancy: A meta-analysis of observational studies. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 93(4), 622-628.
3. Ananth, C. V., Smulian, J. C., Demissie, K., Vintzileos, A. M., & Knuppel, R. A. (2001). Placental abruption among singleton and twin births in the United States: Risk factor profiles. American Journal of Epidemiology, 153(8), 771-778.
4. Andersen, A. M. (2001). Commentary: Social inequalities in risk of stillbirth - the price of success? International Journal of Epidemiology, 30(6), 1301-1302.
5. Anderson, H. R., & Cook, D. G. (1997). Passive smoking and sudden infant death syndrome: Review of the epidemiological evidence. Thorax, 52(11), 1003-1009.
6. Atrash, H. K., Hughes, J. M., & Hogue, C. J. (1986). Ectopic pregnancy in the United States. 1970-1983. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 35(2SS), 29SS-37SS.
7. Augood, C., Duckitt, K., & Templeton, A. A. (1998). Smoking and female infertility: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Human Reproduction, 13(6), 1532-1539.
8. Bailey, A., Le Couteur, A., Gottesman, I., Bolton, P., Simonoff, E., Yuzda, E., & Rutter, M. (1995). Autism as a strongly genetic disorder: Evidence from a British twin study. Psychological Medicine, 25(1), 63-77.
9. Baron, J. A., La Vecchia, C., & Levi, F. (1990). The antiestrogenic effect of cigarette smoking in women. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 162(2), 502-514.
10. Berg, C. J., Atrash, H. K., Koonin, L. M., & Tucker, M. (1996). Pregnancy-related mortality in the United States, 1987-1990. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 88(2), 161-167.
11. Berkowitz, G. S., & Papiernik, E. (1993). Epidemiology of preterm birth. Epidemiologic Reviews, 15(2), 414-443.
12. Blair, P. S., Fleming, P. J., Bensley, D., Smith, I., Bacon, C., Taylor, E., Berry, J., Golding, J., & Tripp, J. (1996). Smoking and the sudden infant death syndrome: Results from 1993-5 case-control study for confidential inquiry into stillbirths and deaths in infancy. Confidential Enquiry into Stillbirths and Deaths Regional Coordinators and Researchers. British Medical Journal, 313(7051), 195-198.
13. Borras, J. M., Fernandez, E., Schiaffino, A., Borrell, C., & La Vecchia, C. (2000). Pattern of smoking initiation in Catalonia, Spain, from 1948 to 1992. American Journal of Public Health, 90(9), 1459-1462.
14. Brandt, A. M. (1996). Recruiting women smokers: The engineering of consent. Journal of American Medical Women's Association, 51(1-2), 63-66.
15. Buck, G. M., Michalek, A. M., Chen, C. J., Nasca, P. C., & Baptiste, M. S. (2001). Perinatal factors and risk of neuroblastoma. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 15(1), 47-53.
16. Burd, L., Severud, R., Kerbeshian, J., & Klug, M. G. (1999). Prenatal and perinatal risk factors for autism. Journal of Perinatal Medicine, 27(6), 441-450.
17. Chan, A., Keane, R. J., & Robinson, J. S. (2001). The contribution of maternal smoking to preterm birth, small for gestational age and low birthweight among Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal births in South Australia. Medical Journal of Australia, 174(8), 389-393.
18. Cnattingius, S. (1989). Does age potentiate the smoking-related risk of fetal growth retardation? Early Human Development, 20(3-4), 203-211.
19. Cnattingius, S. (1997). Maternal age modifies the effect of maternal smoking on intrauterine growth retardation but not on late fetal death and placental abruption. American Journal of Epidemiology, 145(4), 319-323.
20. Cnattingius, S., Granath, F., Petersson, G., & Harlow, B. L. (1999). The influence of gestational age and smoking habits on the risk of subsequent preterm deliveries. New England Journal of Medicine, 341(13), 943-948.
21. Cnattingius, S., & Haglund, B. (1997). Decreasing smoking prevalence during pregnancy in Sweden: The effect on small-for-gestational-age births. American Journal of Public Health, 87(3), 410-413.
22. Cnattingius, S., Lindmark, G., & Meirik, O. (1992). Who continues to smoke while pregnant? Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 46(3), 218-221.
23. Cnattingius, S., Mills, J. L., Yuen, J., Eriksson, O., & Ros, H. S. (1997). The paradoxical effect of smoking in preeclamptic pregnancies: Smoking reduces the incidence but increases the rates of perinatal mortality, abruption placentar, and intrauterine growth restriction. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 177(1), 156-161.
24. Cnattingius, S., Zack, M., Ekbom, A., Gunnarskog, J., Linet, M., & Adami, H. O. (1995). Prenatal and neonatal risk factors for childhood myeloid leukemia. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers and Prevention, 4(5), 441-445.
25. Cooke, R. W. (1998). Smoking, intra-uterine growth retardation and sudden infant death syndrome. International Journal of Epidemiology, 27(2), 238-241.
26. Copper, R. L., Goldenberg, R. L., DuBard, M. B., & Davis, R. O. (1994). Risk factors for fetal death in White, Black, and Hispanic women. Collaborative Group on Preterm Birth Prevention. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 84(4), 490-495.
27. Curtis, K. M., Savitz, D. A., & Arbuckle, T. E. (1997). Effects of cigarette smoking, caffeine consumption, and alcohol intake on fecundability. American Journal of Epidemiology, 146(1), 32-41.
28. Dwyer, T., Ponsonby, A. L., & Couper, D. (1999). Tobacco smoke exposure at one month of age and subsequent risk of SIDS - a prospective study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 149(7), 593-602.
29. Ernster, V. L. (1985). Mixed messages for women. A social history of cigarette smoking and advertising. New York State Journal of Medicine, 85(7), 335-340.
30. European Network for Smoking Prevention. (1999). European Report. Some like it "light." Women and smoking in the European Union. Brussels, Belgium: European Network for Smoking Prevention.
31. Faruque, M. O., Khan, M. R., Rahman, M. M., & Ahmed, F. (1995). Relationship between smoking and antioxidant nutrient status. British Journal of Nutrition, 73(4), 625-632.
32. Fergusson, D. M., Woodward, L. J., & Horwood, L. J. (1998). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and psychiatric adjustment in late adolescence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55(8), 721-727.
33. Fingerhut, L. A., Kleinman, J. C., & Kendrick, J. S. (1990). Smoking before, during, and after pregnancy. American Journal of Public Health, 80(5), 541-544.
34. Fleming, P. J., Blair, P. S., Bacon, C., Bensley, D., Smith, I., Taylor, E., Berry, J., Golding, J., & Tripp, J. (1996). Environment of infants during sleep and risk of the sudden infant death syndrome: Results of 1993-5 case-control study for confidential inquiry into stillbirths and deaths in infancy. Confidential Enquiry into Stillbirths and Deaths Regional Coordinators and Researchers. British Medical Journal, 313(7051), 191-195.
35. Florack, E. I., Zielhuis, G. A., & Rolland, R. (1994). Cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and caffeine intake and fecundability. Preventive Medicine, 23(2), 175-180.
36. Ford, R. P., Tappin, D. M., Schluter, P. J., & Wild, C. J. (1997). Smoking during pregnancy: How reliable are maternal self reports in New Zealand? Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 51(3), 246-251.
37. Fox, S. H., Koepsell, T. D., & Daling, J. R. (1994). Birth weight and smoking during pregnancy - effect modification by maternal age. American Journal of Epidemiology, 139(10), 1008-1015.
38. Froen, J. F., Arnestad, M., Frey, K., Vege, A., Saugstad, O. D., & Stray-Pedersen, B. (2001). Risk factors for sudden intrauterine unexplained death: Epidemiologic characteristics of singleton cases in Oslo, Norway, 1986-1995. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 184(4), 694-702.
39. Gardosi, J., Mul, T., Mongelli, M., & Fagan, D. (1998). Analysis of birthweight and gestational age in antepartum stillbirths. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 105(5), 524-530.
40. Gindoff, P. R., & Tidey, G. F. (1989). Effects of smoking on female fecundity and early pregnancy outcome. Seminars in Reproductive Endocrinology, 7(4), 305-313.
41. Goldenberg, R. L., & Andrews, W. W. (1996). Intrauterine infection and why preterm prevention programs have failed [editorial]. American Journal of Public Health, 86(6), 781-783.
42. Golding, J., Paterson, M., & Kinlen, L. J. (1990). Factors associated with childhood cancer in a national cohort study. British Journal of Cancer, 62(2), 304-308.
43. Gustafson, O., Nylund, L., & Carlstrom, K. (1996). Does hyper-androgenism explain lower in vitro fertilization (IVF) success rates in smokers? Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica, 75(2), 149-156.
44. Hadley, C. B., Main, D. M., & Gabbe, S. G. (1990). Risk factors for preterm premature rupture of the fetal membranes. American Journal of Perinatology, 7(4), 374-379.
45. Haglund, B., & Cnattingius, S. (1990). Cigarette smoking as a risk factor for sudden infant death syndrome: A population-based study [published erratum appears in American Journal of Public Health 1992 Nov;82(11):1489]. American Journal of Public Health, 80(1), 29-32.
46. Harger, J. H., Hsing, A. W., Tuomala, R. E., Gibbs, R. S., Mead, P. B., Eschenbach, D. A., Knox, G. E., & Polk, B. F. (1990). Risk factors for preterm premature rupture of fetal membranes: A multicenter case-control study. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 163(1 Pt 1), 130-137.
47. Harlap, S., & Davies, A. M. (1974). Infant admissions to hospital and maternal smoking. Lancet, 1(7857), 529-532.
48. Harris, B. A., Jr. (1988). Peripheral placental separation: A review. Obstetrical and Gynecological Survey, 43(10), 577-581.
49. Hartsfield, J. K., Jr., Hickman, T. A., Everett, E. T., Shaw, G. M., Lammer, E. J., & Finnell, R. A. (2001). Analysis of the EPHX1 113 polymorphism and GSTM1 homozygous null polymorphism and oral clefting associated with maternal smoking. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 102(1), 21-24.
50. Hauck, F. R., Herman, S. M., Donovan, M., Iyasu, S., Merrick Moore, C., Donoghue, E., Kirschner, R. H., & Willinger, M. (2003). Sleep environment and the risk of sudden infant death syndrome in an urban population: The Chicago Infant Mortality Study. Pediatrics, 111(5 Pt 2), 1207-1214.
51. Hoffman, D. R., Romero, R., & Johnston, J. M. (1990). Detection of platelet-activating factor in amniotic fluid of complicated pregnancies. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 162(2), 525-528.
52. Holt, P. G. (1987). Immune and inflammatory function in cigarette smokers. Thorax, 42(4), 241-249.
53. Hughes, E. G., & Brennan, B. G. (1996). Does cigarette smoking impair natural or assisted fecundity? Fertility and Sterility, 66(5), 679-689.
54. Hultman, C. M., Sparen, P., & Cnattingius, S. (2002). Perinatal risk factors for infantile autism. Epidemiology, 13(4), 417-423.
55. Hwang, S. J., Beaty, T. H., Panny, S. R., Street, N. A., Joseph, J. M., Gordon, S., McIntosh, I., & Francomano, C. A. (1995). Association study of transforming growth factor alpha (TGF alpha) TaqI polymorphism and oral clefts: Indication of gene-environment interaction in a population-based sample of infants with birth defects. American Journal of Epidemiology, 141(7), 629-636.
56. Iyasu, S., Saftlas, A. K., Rowley, D. L., Koonin, L. M., Lawson, H. W., & Atrash, H. K. (1993). The epidemiology of placenta previa in the United States, 1979 through 1987. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 168(5), 1424-1429.
57. John, E. M., Savitz, D. A., & Sandler, D. P. (1991). Prenatal exposure to parents' smoking and childhood cancer. American Journal of Epidemiology, 133(2), 123-132.
58. Kallen, K. (1997). Maternal smoking and orofacial clefts. The Cleft Palate-Craniofacial Journal, 34(1), 11-16.
59. Klebanoff, M. A., Clemens, J. D., & Read, J. S. (1996). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and childhood cancer. American Journal of Epidemiology, 144(11), 1028-1033.
60. Klebanoff, M. A., Levine, R. J., Clemens, J. D., DerSimonian, R., & Wilkins, D. G. (1998). Serum cotinine concentration and self-reported smoking during pregnancy. American Journal of Epidemiology, 148(3), 259-262.
61. Kleinman, J. C., & Kopstein, A. (1987). Smoking during pregnancy, 1967-80. American Journal of Public Health, 77(7), 823-825.
62. Kline, J., Levin, B., Kinney, A., Stein, Z., Susser, M., & Warburton, D. (1995). Cigarette smoking and spontaneous abortion of known karyotype. Precise data but uncertain inferences. American Journal of Epidemiology, 141(5), 417-427.
63. Klonoff-Cohen, H., Edelstein, S., & Savitz, D. (1993). Cigarette smoking and preeclampsia. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 81(4), 541-544.
64. Klonoff-Cohen, H. S., Edelstein, S. L., Lefkowitz, E. S., Srinivasan, I. P., Kaegi, D., Chang, J. C., & Wiley, K. J. (1995). The effect of passive smoking and tobacco exposure through breast milk on sudden infant death syndrome. Journal of the American Medical Association, 273(10), 795-798.
65. Kramer, M. S. (1987). Intrauterine growth and gestational duration determinants. Pediatrics, 80(4), 502-511.
66. Kramer, M. S., Usher, R. H., Pollack, R., Boyd, M., & Usher, S. (1997). Etiologic determinants of abruptio placentae. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 89(2), 221-226.
67. Kyrklund-Blomberg, N. B., & Cnattingius, S. (1998). Preterm birth and maternal smoking: Risks related to gestational age and onset of delivery. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 179(4), 1051-1055.
68. Kyrklund-Blomberg, N. B., Gennser, G., & Cnattingius, S. (2001). Placental abruption and perinatal death. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 15(3), 290-297.
69. Lambers, D. S., & Clark, K. E. (1996). The maternal and fetal physiologic effects of nicotine. Seminars in Perinatology, 20(2), 115-126.
70. Lee, T., & Silver, H. (2001). Etiology and epidemiology of preterm premature rupture of the membranes. Clinical Perinatology, 28(4), 721-734.
71. Li, C. Q., Windsor, R. A., Perkins, L., Goldenberg, R. L., & Lowe, J. B. (1993). The impact on infant birth weight and gestational age of cotinine-validated smoking reduction during pregnancy. Journal of the American Medical Association, 269(12), 1519-1524.
72. Linet, M. S., Gridley, G., Cnattingius, S., Nicholson, H. S., Martinsson, U., Glimelius, B., Adami, H. O., & Zack, M. (1996). Maternal and perinatal risk factors for childhood brain tumors (Sweden). Cancer Causes and Control, 7(4), 437-448.
73. Lumley, J., Oliver, S., & Waters, E. (2002). Interventions for promoting smoking cessation during pregnancy (Cochrane Review) (Vol. 4). Oxford: Update Software.
74. MacArthur, C., & Knox, E. G. (1988). Smoking in pregnancy: Effects of stopping at different stages. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 95(6), 551-555.
75. MacDorman, M. F., Cnattingius, S., Hoffman, H. J., Kramer, M. S., & Haglund, B. (1997). Sudden infant death syndrome and smoking in the United States and Sweden. American Journal of Epidemiology, 146(3 , 249-257.
76. Mackay, J. (1996). Women and tobacco: International issues. Journal of American Medical Women's Association, 51(1-2), 48-51.
77. Mackay, J., & Crofton, J. (1996). Tobacco and the developing world. British Medical Bulletin, 52(1), 206-221.
78. Malloy, M. H., Hoffman, H. J., & Peterson, D. R. (1992). Sudden infant death syndrome and maternal smoking. American Journal of Public Health, 82(10), 1380-1382.
79. Malloy, M. H., Kleinman, J. C., Bakewell, J. M., Schramm, W. F., & Land, G. H. (1989). Maternal smoking during pregnancy: No association with congenital malformations in Missouri 1980-83. American Journal of Public Health, 79(9), 1243-1246.
80. Malloy, M. H., Kleinman, J. C., Land, G. H., & Schramm, W. F. (1988). The association of maternal smoking with age and cause of infant death. American Journal of Epidemiology, 128(1), 46-55.
81. Martin, J. A., Hamilton, B. E., Ventura, S. J., Menacker, F., & Park, M. M. (2002). Births: Final data for 2000. National Vital Statistics Reports, 50(5), 1-104.
82. Mathews, T. J., Menacker, F., & MacDorman, M. F. (2002). Infant mortality statistics from the 2000 period linked birth/infant death data set. National Vital Statistics Reports, 50(12), 1-28.
83. McGillivray, I. (1983). Preeclampsia: The hypertensic diseases of pregnancy. Philadelphia: WB Saunders.
84. McKinney, P. A., & Stiller, C. A. (1986). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and the risk of childhood cancer. Lancet, 2(8505), 519-520.
85. Meyer, M. B., & Tonascia, J. A. (1977). Maternal smoking, pregnancy complications, and perinatal mortality. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 128(5), 494-502.
86. Milberger, S., Biederman, J., Faraone, S. V., Chen, L., & Jones, J. (1996). Is maternal smoking during pregnancy a risk factor for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children? American Journal of Psychiatry, 153(9), 1138-1142.
87. Mitchell, E. A. (1995). Smoking: The next major modifiable risk factor. In T. O. Rognum (ed.), Sudden infant death syndrome: New trends in the nineties (pp. 114-118). Oslo: Scandinavian University Press.
88. Mitchell, E. A., Ford, R. P., Stewart, A. W., Taylor, B. J., Becroft, D. M., & Thompson, J. M. et al (1993). Smoking and the sudden infant death syndrome. Pediatrics, 91(5), 893-896.
89. Mitchell, E. A., Scragg, R., Stewart, A. W., Becroft, D. M., Taylor, B. J., Ford, R. P., Hassall, I. B., Barry, D. M., Allen, E. M., & Roberts, A. P. (1991). Results from the first year of the New Zealand Cot Death Study. New Zealand Medical Journal, 104(906), 71-76.
90. Mitchell, E. A., Thach, B. T., Thompson, J. M., & Williams, S. (1999). Changing infants' sleep position increases risk of sudden infant death syndrome. New Zealand Cot Death Study. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 153(11), 1136-1141.
91. Mitchell, E. A., Tuohy, P. G., Brunt, J. M., Thompson, J. M., Clements, M. S., Stewart, A. W., Ford, R. P., & Taylor, B. J. (1997). Risk factors for sudden infant death syndrome following the prevention campaign in New Zealand: A prospective study. Pediatrics, 100(5), 835-840.
92. Murphy, J. F., Newcombe, R. G., & Sibert, J. R. (1982). The epidemiology of sudden infant death syndrome. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 36(1), 17-21.
93. Naeye, R. L. (1978). Effects of maternal cigarette smoking on the fetus and placenta. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 85(10), 732-737.
94. Naeye, R. L. (1980). Abruptio placentae and placenta previa: Frequency, perinatal mortality, and cigarette smoking. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 55(6), 701-704.
95. Naeye, R. L. (1981). Maternal blood pressure and fetal growth. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 141(7), 780-787.
96. National Board of Health Denmark. (2002). Survey of smoking habits in Denmark 2002. Copenhagen: National Board of Health Denmark.
97. Ness, R. B., Grisso, J. A., Hirschinger, N., Markovic, N., Shaw, L. M., Day, N. L., & Kline, J. (1999). Cocaine and tobacco use and the risk of spontaneous abortion. New England Journal of Medicine, 340(5), 333-339.
98. Neutel, C. I., & Buck, C. (1971). Effect of smoking during pregnancy on the risk of cancer in children. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 47(1), 59-63.
99. Nordström, M. L., & Cnattingius, S. (1994). Smoking habits and birthweights in two successive births in Sweden. Early Human Development, 37(3), 195-204.
100. Nordström, M. L., Cnattingius, S., & Haglund, B. (1993). Social differences in Swedish infant mortality by cause of death, 1983 to 1986. American Journal of Public Health, 83(1), 26-30.
101. Norman, M. A., Holly, E. A., & Preston-Martin, S. (1996). Childhood brain tumors and exposure to tobacco smoke. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention, 5(2), 85-91.
102. Nymand, G. (1974). Letter: Maternal smoking and immunity. Lancet, 2(7893), 1379-1380.
103. Odegard, R. A., Vatten, L. J., Nilsen, S. T., Salvesen, K. A., & Austgulen, R. (2000). Risk factors and clinical manifestations of pre-eclampsia. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 107(11), 1410-1416.
104. Olsen, J. (1991). Cigarette smoking, tea and coffee drinking, and subfecundity. American Journal of Epidemiology, 133(7), 734-739.
105. Oyen, N., Haglund, B., Skjaerven, R., & Irgens, L. M. (1997). Maternal smoking, birthweight and gestational age in sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) babies and their surviving siblings. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 11(Suppl 1), 84-95.
106. Oyen, N., Skjaerven, R., Little, R. E., & Wilcox, A. J. (1995). Fetal growth retardation in sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) babies and their siblings. American Journal of Epidemiology, 142(1), 84-90.
107. Pershagen, G. (1989). Childhood cancer and malignancies other than lung cancer related to passive smoking. Mutation Research, 222(2), 129-135.
108. Pershagen, G., Ericson, A., & Otterblad-Olausson, P. (1992). Maternal smoking in pregnancy: Does it increase the risk of childhood cancer? International Journal of Epidemiology, 21(1), 1-5.
109. Phipps, W. R., Cramer, D. W., Schiff, I., Belisle, S., Stillman, R., Albrecht, B., Gibson, M., Berger, M. J., & Wilson, E. (1987). The association between smoking and female infertility as influenced by cause of the infertility. Fertility and Sterility, 48(3), 377-382.
110. Ponsonby, A. L., Dwyer, T., Kasl, S. V., & Cochrane, J. A. (1995). The Tasmanian SIDS Case-Control Study: Univariable and multivariable risk factor analysis. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 9(3), 256-272.
111. Rajs, J., Rasten-Almqvist, P., Falck, G., Eksborg, S., & Andersson, B. S. (1997). Sudden infant death syndrome: Postmortem findings of nicotine and cotinine in pericardial fluid of infants in relation to morphological changes and position at death. Pediatric Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, 17(1), 83-97.
112. Rantakallio, P. (1978). Relationship of maternal smoking to morbidity and mortality of the child up to the age of five. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica, 67(5), 621-631.
113. Rasmussen, S., Irgens, L. M., & Dalaker, K. (1999). A history of placental dysfunction and risk of placental abruption. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 13(1), 9-21.
114. Raymond, E. G., Cnattingius, S., & Kiely, J. L. (1994). Effects of maternal age, parity, and smoking on the risk of stillbirth. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 101(4), 301-306.
115. Rice, J. M., & Ward, J. M. (1982). Age dependence of susceptibility to carcinogenesis in the nervous system. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 381, 274-289.
116. Ros, H. S., Cnattingius, S., & Lipworth, L. (1998). Comparison of risk factors for preeclampsia and gestational hypertension in a population-based cohort study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 147(11), 1062-1070.
117. Savitz, D. A., Blackmore, C. A., & Thorp, J. M. (1991). Epidemiologic characteristics of preterm delivery: Etiologic heterogeneity. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 164(2), 467-471.
118. Schoendorf, K. C., & Kiely, J. L. (1992). Relationship of sudden infant death syndrome to maternal smoking during and after pregnancy. Pediatrics, 90(6), 905-908.
119. Schwartzbaum, J. A., George, S. L., Pratt, C. B., & Davis, B. (1991). An exploratory study of environmental and medical factors potentially related to childhood cancer. Medical and Pediatric Oncology, 19(2), 115-121.
120. Seshadri, L., & Venkataraman, I. (1997). Hypertension in pregnancy. Outcomes, proteinuric vs. nonproteinuric. Journal of Reproductive Medicine, 42(2), 88-90.
121. Sexton, M., & Hebel, J. R. (1984). A clinical trial of change in maternal smoking and its effect on birth weight. Journal of the American Medical Association, 251(7), 911-915.
122. Shiono, P. H., Klebanoff, M. A., & Berendes, H. W. (1986). Congenital malformations and maternal smoking during pregnancy. Teratology, 34(1), 65-71.
123. Shiono, P. H., Klebanoff, M. A., & Rhoads, G. G. (1986). Smoking and drinking during pregnancy. Their effects on preterm birth. Journal of the American Medical Association, 255(1), 82-84.
124. Shu, X. O., Gao, Y. T., Brinton, L. A., Linet, M. S., Tu, J. T., Zheng, W., & Fraumeni, J. F., Jr. (1988). A population-based case-control study of childhood leukemia in Shanghai. Cancer, 62(3), 635-644.
125. Simpson, W. J., & Linda, L. A. (1957). A preliminary report in cigarette smoking and the incidence of prematurity. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 73, 808-815.
126. Spinillo, A., Capuzzo, E., Nicola, S. E., Colonna, L., Egbe, T. O., & Zara, C. (1994). Factors potentiating the smoking-related risk of fetal growth retardation. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 101(11), 954-958.
127. Spinillo, A., Nicola, S., Piazzi, G., Ghazal, K., Colonna, L., & Baltaro, F. (1994). Epidemiological correlates of preterm premature rupture of membranes. International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, 47(1), 7-15.
128. Stephansson, O., Dickman, P. W., Johansson, A., & Cnattingius, S. (2001). Maternal weight, pregnancy weight gain, and the risk of antepartum stillbirth. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 184(3), 463-469.
129. Suzuki, K., Horiguchi, T., Comas-Urrutia, A. C., Mueller-Heubach, E., Morishima, H. O., & Adamsons, K. (1971). Pharmacologic effects of nicotine upon the fetus and mother in the rhesus monkey. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 111(8), 1092-1101.
130. Swedish Survey of Living Conditions. (2002). Stockholm: Statistics Sweden.
131. Task Force on Community Preventive Services. (2001). Recommendations regarding interventions to reduce tobacco use and exposure to environmental tobacco smoke. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 20(2 Suppl), 10-15.
132. Taylor, B., & Wadsworth, J. (1987). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and lower respiratory tract illness in early life. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 62(8), 786-791.
133. Tredaniel, J., Boffetta, P., Little, J., Saracci, R., & Hirsch, A. (1994). Exposure to passive smoking during pregnancy and childhood, and cancer risk: The epidemiological evidence. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 8(3), 233-255.
134. Trosclair, A., Husten, C., Pedersen, L., & Dhillon, I. (2002). Cigarette smoking among adults - United States, 2000. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 51(29), 642-645.
135. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2001a). Patterns of tobacco use among women and girls. In Women and smoking: A report of the surgeon general (pp. 19-176). Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office of Smoking and Health.
136. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2001b). Health consequences of tobacco use among women. In Women and smoking: A report of the surgeon general (pp. 177-450). Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office of Smoking and Health.
137. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2002). Health, United States, 2002, with chartbooks on trends in the health of Americans (DHHS Publication No. 1232). Hyattsville, MD: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics.
138. Wakefield, M., & Chaloupka, F. (2000). Effectiveness of comprehensive tobacco control programmes in reducing teenage smoking in the USA. Tobacco Control, 9(2), 177-186.
139. Van den Eeden, S. K., Karagas, M. R., Daling, J. R., & Vaughan, T. L. (1990). A case-control study of maternal smoking and congenital malformations. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 4(2), 147-155.
140. van Duijn, C. M., van Steensel-Moll, H. A., Coebergh, J. W., & van Zanen, G. E. (1994). Risk factors for childhood acute non-lymphocytic leukemia: An association with maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy? Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention, 3(6), 457-460.
141. Wang, X., Zuckerman, B., Pearson, C., Kaufman, G., Chen, C., Wang, G., Niu, T., Wise, P. H., Bauchner, H., & Xu, X. (2002). Maternal cigarette smoking, metabolic gene polymorphism, and infant birth weight. Journal of the American Medical Association, 287(2), 195-202.
142. Weitzman, M., Gortmaker, S., Walker, D. K., & Sobol, A. (1990). Maternal smoking and childhood asthma. Pediatrics, 85(4), 505-511.
143. Welch, R. M., Harrison, Y. E., Gommi, B. W., Poppers, P. J., Finster, M., & Conney, A. H. (1969). Stimulatory effect of cigarette smoking on the hydroxylation of 3,4-benzpyrene and the N-demethylation of 3-methyl-4-monomethylaminoazobenzene by enzymes in human placenta. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 10(1), 100-109.
144. Wen, S. W., Goldenberg, R. L., Cutter, G. R., Hoffman, H. J., Cliver, S. P., Davis, R. O., & DuBard, M. B. (1990). Smoking, maternal age, fetal growth, and gestational age at delivery. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 162(1), 53-58.
145. Wilcox, A. J. (1993). Birth weight and perinatal mortality: The effect of maternal smoking. American Journal of Epidemiology, 137(10), 1098-1104.
146. Willinger, M., Hoffman, H. J., & Hartford, R. B. (1994). Infant sleep position and risk for sudden infant death syndrome: Report of meeting held January 13-14, 1994, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD. Pediatrics, 93(5), 814-819.
147. Wisborg, K., Henriksen, T. B., Hedegaard, M., & Secher, N. J. (1996). Smoking among pregnant women and the significance of sociodemographic factors on smoking cessation. Ugeskrift for Laeger, 158(26), 3784-3788.
148. Wisborg, K., Henriksen, T. B., Jespersen, L. B., & Secher, N. J. (2000). Nicotine patches for pregnant smokers: A randomized controlled study. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 96(6), 967-971.
149. Wisborg, K., Henriksen, T. B., Obel, C., Skajaa, E., & Ostergaard, J. R. (1999). Smoking during pregnancy and hospitalization of the child. Pediatrics, 104(4), e46.
150. Wisborg, K., Kesmodel, U., Henriksen, T. B., Olsen, S. F., & Secher, N. J. (2000). A prospective study of smoking during pregnancy and SIDS. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 83(3), 203-206.
151. Wisborg, K., Kesmodel, U., Henriksen, T. B., Olsen, S. F., & Secher, N. J. (2001). Exposure to tobacco smoke in utero and the risk of stillbirth and death in the first year of life. American Journal of Epidemiology, 154(4), 322-327.
152. Wyszynski, D. F., Duffy, D. L., & Beaty, T. H. (1997). Maternal cigarette smoking and oral clefts: A meta-analysis. The Cleft Palate-Craniofacial Journal, 34(3), 206-210.
153. Ylikorkala, O., Viinikka, L., & Lehtovirta, P. (1985). Effect of nicotine on fetal prostacyclin and thromboxane in humans. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 66(1), 102-105.
154. Zeitlin, J. A., Ancel, P. Y., Saurel-Cubizolles, M. J., & Papiernik, E. (2001). Are risk factors the same for small for gestational age versus other preterm births? American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 185(1), 208-215.