The rise of neo-Third Worldism? The Indonesian trajectory and the consolidation of illiberal democracy

Third World Quarterly

Volumn 25, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 55-71

  Hadiz, Vedi R ^a  

^a NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE   (Singapore)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEMOCRACY; DEMOCRATIZATION; DEVELOPING WORLD; LIBERALISM; POST-COLD WAR;

ASIA; EURASIA; INDONESIA; SOUTHEAST ASIA;

EID: 24944527826     PISSN: 01436597     EISSN: 13602241     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/0143659042000185336     Document Type: Article

References (81)

1. SP Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century, Norman, OK: Oklahoma University Press, 1991.
2. See, for example, RW Liddle, 'Indonesia's democratic transition: Playing by the rules', in A Reynolds (ed), The Architecture of Democracy, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001, pp 373-399
3. and D Kingsbury & A Budiman (eds), Indonesia: The Uncertain Transition, Adelaide: Crawford House Publishing, 2001.
4. PJ Dobriansky, 'Democracy promotion: Explaining the Bush administration's position', Foreign Affairs, 82 (3), 2003.
5. There has been a number of recent publications on American empire. One of the best known is C Johnson, Blowback: The Costs and Consequences of American Empire, New York: Metropolitan Books, 2000.
6. T Carothers, 'Promoting democracy and fighting terror', Foreign Affairs, 82 (1), 2003, pp 84-97.
7. Although neo-conservatives have played a key role in setting the current Bush presidency's foreign policy agenda, the idea of a democratic Pax Americana is usually viewed as a product of an alliance of conservatives of various stripes. see, for example, R Bleecher, 'Free people will set the course of history', Middle East Report Online, March 2003.
8. On this kind of democracy, see R Robison 'What sort of democracy? Predatory and neoliberal agendas in Indonesia', in C Kinnvall K Jonsson (eds), Globalization and Democratization in Asia: The Construction of Identity, New York: Routledge, 2002, pp 92-113.
9. For a good critical overview of the debates see MT Berger, 'Old state and new empire in Indonesia: Debating the rise and decline of Suharto's New Order', Third World Quarterly, 18 (2), 1997, pp 321-361.
10. The classic work was G Almond & S Verba, The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963.
11. For example, see MT Berger, 'Decolonization, modernization and nation-building: Political development theory and the appeal of communism in Southeast Asia, 1945-1975', Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 34 (3), 2003, pp 421-428.
12. The details of this programme are elaborated in RW Dye, 'The Jakarta Faculty of Economics', Ford Foundation Report, 1965.
13. The book was published in 1973 by the think-tank he created in Jakarta, the Centre for Strategic and International Studies.
14. See A Moertopo, 'Our national development strategy', in I Chalmers & VR Hadiz, The Politics of Economic Development in Indonesia: Contending Perspectives, London: Routledge, 1997. This piece is taken from Chapter 4 of his 'magnum opus'.
15. See, for example, K Jackson & L Pye (eds), Political Power and Communications in Indonesia, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1978.
16. See Sjahrir, 'The struggle for deregulation in Indonesia', reproduced in Chalmers & Hadiz, The Politics of Economic Development in Indonesia, p 156.
17. See J MacDougall, 'Technocrats as modernizers: The economists of Indonesia's New Order', PhD thesis, University of Michigan, 1975.
18. D Ransom, 'Ford country: Building an elite for Indonesia', in S Weissman (ed), The Trojan Horse: A Radical Look at Foreign Aid, Paolo Alto, CA: Ramparts Press, 1975, pp 93-116. This is a revised version of an article that originally appeared in Ramparts Magazine in 1970.
19. R Robison & VR Hadiz, Reorganising Power in Indonesia: The Politics of Oligarchy in an Age of Markets, London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004.
20. See, in particular, S Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1968.
21. For the 'democratic' ideals of modernisation theory see G Almond & B Powell, Jr, Comparative Politics: A Developmental Approach, Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 1966.
22. SP Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century, Norman, OK: Oklahoma University Press, 1991
23. and Huntington, 'The clash of civilisations', Foreign Affairs, Summer 1993, pp 22-49.
24. See JM Boileau, Golkar: Functional Group Politics in Indonesia, Jakarta: Centre for Strategic and International Studies, 1983, p 68.
25. See R Mortimer 'Indonesia: Growth or development', in Mortimer, Stubborn Survivors, Clayton: Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1984.
26. S Arief & A Sasono, Indonesia: Ketergantungan dan Keterbelakangan, Jakarta: Lembaga Studi Pembangunan, 1981.
27. See, for example, RW Hefner, Civil Islam: Muslims and Democratization in Indonesia, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000.
28. See H Alavi, 'The state in post-colonial societies: Pakistan and Bangladesh', New Left Review, 74, 1972, pp 59-81
29. and Alavi, 'State and class under peripheral capitalism', in H Alavi & T Shanin (eds), Introduction to the Sociology of Developing Societies, London: Basingstoke, 1982.
30. See F Bulkin, 'Golongan Menengah dan Negara', Prisma, 2, 1984
31. and 'Negara, Masyarakat dan Ekonomi', Prisma, 8, 1984.
32. M Mas'oed, Ekonomi dan Struktur Politik Orde Baru, 1966-71, Jakarta: LP3ES.
33. G O'Donnell, Modernization and Bureaucratic Authoritarianism: Studies in South American Politics, Berkeley, CA: Institute of International Studies, 1973.
34. PB Evans, D Rueschemeyer & T Skocpol (eds), Bringing the State Back In, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
35. B Anderson, 'Old state, new society: Indonesia's New Order in comparative historical perspective', in Anderson, Language and Power: Exploring Political Cultures in Indonesia, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990.
36. R Robison, Indonesia: The Rise of Capital, Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1986, pp 117-118.
37. R. Robison, 'Indonesia: Tensions in state and regime', in K Hewison, R Robison & G Rodan (eds), Southeast Asia in the 1990s: Authoritarianism, Democracy, and Capitalism', St Leonards: Allen and Unwin, 1993, p 41.
38. One example is D Dhakidae, 'The state, the rise of capital and the fall of political journalism: Political economy of the Indonesian news industry', PhD dissertation, Cornell University, 1991.
39. Sjahrir, 'Indonesian financial and trade deregulation: Government policies and society responses', paper presented at a Workshop on Dynamics of Economic Policy Reform in Southeast Asia and Australia, Centre for the Study of Australia-Asia Relations, Griffith University, Queensland, 7-9 October 1989.
40. See C Leys, The Rise and Fall of Development Theory, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1996, ch 4 for a survey.
41. See also B Fine, Social Capital versus Social Theory: Political Economy and Social Science at the Turn of the Millennium, London: Routledge, 2001
42. and J Harriss, Depoliticizing Development: The World Bank and Social Capital, London: Anthem Press, 2002.
43. D North, 'Economic performance through time', American Economic Review, 84 (3), 1994, pp 359-368.
44. Discussed in H Shapiro & L Taylor, 'The state and industrial strategy', World Development, 18 (6), 1990, pp 861-878.
45. K Jayasuriya, 'Authoritarian liberalism, governance, and the emergence of the regulatory state in post-crisis East Asia', in R Robison, M Beeson, K Jayasuriya & H-R Kim (eds), Politics and Markets in the Wake of the Asian Crisis, London: Routledge, 2000.
46. Robison, 'What sort of democracy?', pp 92-113.
47. G Rodan, 'Theorising political opposition in East and Southeast Asia', in Rodan (ed), Political Oppositions in Industrialising Asia, London: Routledge, 1996.
48. Eg MAS Hikam, Demokrasi dan Civil Society, Jakarta: LP3ES, 1996.
49. See the World Bank's simplistic treatment of civil society's role in development in World Bank, Working Together: The World Bank's Partnership with Civil Society, Washington, DC: World Bank, 2000.
50. See his Mendobrak Sentralisme Ekonomi, Jakarta: Gramedia, 2002.
51. R Robison & VR Hadiz, Reorganising Power in the Age of Markets: Regime Change and the Ascendance of Oligarchy in Indonesia, London: RoutledgeCurzon, forthcoming
52. VR Hadiz, 'Reorganising political power in Indonesia: A reconsideration of so-called "democratic transitions" ', Pacific Review, 16 (4), 2003, pp 591-611
53. and Hadiz, 'Power and politics in North Sumatra: The uncompleted Reformasi', in E Aspinall & G Fealy (eds), Local Power and Politics in Indonesia: Democratisation and Decentralisation, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2003, pp 119-131.
54. G O'Donnell & PC Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986.
55. G Van Klinken, 'How a democratic deal might be struck', in A Budiman, B Hatley & D Kingsbury (eds), Reformasi: Crisis and Change in Indonesia, Melbourne: Monash Asia Institute, Monash University, 1999, pp 59-67.
56. RW Liddle, 'Indonesia's democratic transition: Playing by the rules', in A Reynolds (ed), The Architecture of Democracy, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001, pp 373-399.
57. US Agency for International Development, 'Transition to a prospering and democratic Indonesia', at http://www.usaid.gov/id/docs-csp2k04.html.
58. L Rudebeck & O Tornquist, 'Introduction', in L Rudebeck, O Tornquist & V Rojas (eds), Democratisation in the Third World: Concrete Cases in Comparative and Theoretical Perspective, Uppsala: Seminar for Development Studies, Uppsala University, 1996, pp 3-4.
59. RW Liddle, 'Can all good things go together? Democracy, growth, and unity in post-Soeharto Indonesia', in D Bourchier & J Legge (eds), Democracy in Indonesia: 1950s and 1990s, Clayton: Monash University Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, 1994, pp 286-301.
60. Among the major ones were the secular nationalist Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI), which was the unofficial party of Sukarno and which was traditionally supported by the bureaucracy; the Masjumi, which was a 'modernist' Islamic party with a support base lying in the small-town petty bourgeoisie; the Nahdlatul Ulama (NU), the 'traditionalist' Muslim party, which was both largely Java-based and predominantly rural; and the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI), which had survived periods of repression under Dutch rule and then conflict with the Indonesian military. Another major party was the Indonesian Socialist Party (PSI), which was the vehicle of the urban intelligentsia - and which appealed to Western traditions of liberalism and social democracy. The 1955 general election resulted in roughly equal support for the Masjumi, NU, PNI and PKI; however, the PSI was almost shut out.
61. R Mortimer, Indonesian Communism Under Sukarno: Ideology and Politics, 1959-1965, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1974.
62. WF Wertheim, 'Whose plot? New light on the 1965 events', Journal of Contemporary Asia, IX (2), 1979, pp 197-215
63. and R Cribb (ed), The Indonesian Killings of 1965-66: Studies from Java and Bali, Monash Papers on Asia no 21, Melbourne, Monash University Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, 1990.
64. For the views of Indonesian liberal pluralists at the time, see D Bourchier & VR Hadiz (eds), Indonesian Politics and Society: A Reader, London, RoutledgeCurzon, 2003, ch 2.
65. VR Hadiz, Workers and the State in New Order Indonesia, London: Routledge, 1997.
66. See D Bourchier & VR Hadiz, 'Introduction', in Bourchier Hadiz, Indonesian Politics and Society, pp 1-24.
67. R Robison & VR Hadiz, 'Oligarchy and capitalism: The case of Indonesia', in L Tomba (ed), East Asian Capitalism: Conflicts, Growth, and Crisis, Milan: Fondazione Giangiacomo Feltrinelli, 2002, pp 37-74.
68. Eg Paul Wolfowitz interview by Tony Snow, Fox News Sunday, 6 April 2003. Transcribed in Defense Link, US Department of Defense, at http://dod.gov/ news/Apr2003/t04072003_t0406dsdfns.html.
69. See also 'Remarks by Deputy Secretary of Defense Paul Wolfowitz before the Turkish Economic and Social Studies Foundation, Conrad Hotel, Istanbul, Turkey, July 14, 2002', at http://www.kurdistan.org/ Current-Updates/remarksbydeputysecretary.html.
70. D Murphy, 'The mod squad', Far Eastern Economic Review, 19 August, 1999, pp 10-11.
71. K Harry, 'Small budget does not justify TNI mercenary activities', Jakarta Post, 18 March 2003.
72. E Aspinall & MT Berger, 'The break-up of Indonesia? Nationalisms after decolonisation and the limits of the nation-state in post-cold war Southeast Asia', Third World Quarterly, 22 (6), 2001, pp 1003-1024.
73. 'Jenderal Ryamizard: Pembunuh Theys Hiyo Eluay Adalah Pahlawan', Tempo Interaktif, 23 April 2003.
74. S Mallaby, 'The reluctant imperialist: Terrorism, failed states, and the case for American empire', Foreign Affairs, 81 (2), 2002, pp 2-7.
75. Meanwhile, Max Boot, an editor of the Wall Street Journal, has produced a book-length study of US involvement in 'small wars' in previous centuries, concluding that the contemporary USA should embrace the small wars of the 21st century in an effort to expand 'the empire of liberty'. M Boot, The Savage Wars of Peace: Small Wars and the Rise of American Power, New York: Basic Books, 2002.
76. In a similar vein, Niall Ferguson has asked rhetorically whether 'the leaders of the one state with the economic resources to make the world a better place have the guts to do it?', concluding that 'we shall soon see'. N Ferguson, 'Clashing civilizations or mad mullahs: The United States between informal and formal empire', in S Talbott & N Chanda (eds), The Age of Terror: America and the World After September 11, Oxford: Perseus Press, 2001, p 141.
77. See also N Ferguson, Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power, New York: Basic Books, 2003.
78. Jakarta Post, 3 June 2003.
79. T Carothers, 'Promoting democracy and fighting terror', Foreign Affairs, 82 (1), 2003, pp 84-97.
80. Agence France Press, 16 October 2002.
81. 'Who's driving Islamic militant groups', Laksamana.net, 24 May 2002.