Old state and new empire in Indonesia: Debating the rise and decline of Suharto's New Order

Third World Quarterly

Volumn 18, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 321-362

  Berger, Mark T ^a  

^a MURDOCH UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0011481589     PISSN: 01436597     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01436599714975     Document Type: Article

References (256)

1. This speculation was given further encouragement by Suharto's visit to Germany for a medical checkup in early July. M Cohen, 'Indonesia: Ill at ease, Far Eastern Economic Review, 18 July 1996, p 16.
2. J McBeth & M Cohen, 'Indonesia: streets of fire', Far Eastern Economic Review, 8 August 1996, pp 14-16; M Lane, 'Suharto gets a glimpse of people power', Green Left Weekly, 241, 7 August 1996, pp 16-17; 'If Indonesia erupts', The Economist, 3 August 1996, p 13; and P Walter, 'Authorities' heavy hand undermines Suharto's platform', Weekend Australian, 28 December 1996, p 8.
3. J McBeth & M Cohen, 'Indonesia: streets of fire', Far Eastern Economic Review, 8 August 1996, pp 14-16; M Lane, 'Suharto gets a glimpse of people power', Green Left Weekly, 241, 7 August 1996, pp 16-17; 'If Indonesia erupts', The Economist, 3 August 1996, p 13; and P Walter, 'Authorities' heavy hand undermines Suharto's platform', Weekend Australian, 28 December 1996, p 8.
4. J McBeth & M Cohen, 'Indonesia: streets of fire', Far Eastern Economic Review, 8 August 1996, pp 14-16; M Lane, 'Suharto gets a glimpse of people power', Green Left Weekly, 241, 7 August 1996, pp 16-17; 'If Indonesia erupts', The Economist, 3 August 1996, p 13; and P Walter, 'Authorities' heavy hand undermines Suharto's platform', Weekend Australian, 28 December 1996, p 8.
5. J McBeth & M Cohen, 'Indonesia: streets of fire', Far Eastern Economic Review, 8 August 1996, pp 14-16; M Lane, 'Suharto gets a glimpse of people power', Green Left Weekly, 241, 7 August 1996, pp 16-17; 'If Indonesia erupts', The Economist, 3 August 1996, p 13; and P Walter, 'Authorities' heavy hand undermines Suharto's platform', Weekend Australian, 28 December 1996, p 8.
6. The percentage of the Indonesian population living in 'absolute poverty', according to the World Bank, has dropped to 15% today from 70% in 1970 (this is based on the assumption that anyone receiving more than 2150 calories a day is no longer living in 'absolute poverty'). In 1993 Indonesia was recategorised as a 'lower-middle' income country instead of a 'low' income country. 'Indonesia: what price stability?', The Economist, 3 August 1996, pp 19-21 . For a good economic overview see H Hill, The Indonesian Economy Since 1966: Southeast Asia's Emerging Giant, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. For indicators of Indonesian economic growth and social change, see also Asian Development Bank, Asian Development Outlook 1996 and 1997, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp 79-84.
7. The percentage of the Indonesian population living in 'absolute poverty', according to the World Bank, has dropped to 15% today from 70% in 1970 (this is based on the assumption that anyone receiving more than 2150 calories a day is no longer living in 'absolute poverty'). In 1993 Indonesia was recategorised as a 'lower-middle' income country instead of a 'low' income country. 'Indonesia: what price stability?', The Economist, 3 August 1996, pp 19-21 . For a good economic overview see H Hill, The Indonesian Economy Since 1966: Southeast Asia's Emerging Giant, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. For indicators of Indonesian economic growth and social change, see also Asian Development Bank, Asian Development Outlook 1996 and 1997, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp 79-84.
8. The percentage of the Indonesian population living in 'absolute poverty', according to the World Bank, has dropped to 15% today from 70% in 1970 (this is based on the assumption that anyone receiving more than 2150 calories a day is no longer living in 'absolute poverty'). In 1993 Indonesia was recategorised as a 'lower-middle' income country instead of a 'low' income country. 'Indonesia: what price stability?', The Economist, 3 August 1996, pp 19-21 . For a good economic overview see H Hill, The Indonesian Economy Since 1966: Southeast Asia's Emerging Giant, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. For indicators of Indonesian economic growth and social change, see also Asian Development Bank, Asian Development Outlook 1996 and 1997, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp 79-84.
9. A Schwarz, A Nation In Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s, Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1994, pp 59-60.
10. MT Berger, 'Post-cold war Indonesia and the revenge of history: the colonial legacy, nationalist visions and global capitalism', in MT Berger & DA Borer (eds), The Rise of East Asia: Critical Visions of the Pacific Century, London: Routledge, 1997; and R McVey, 'Building behemoth: Indonesian constructions of the nation-state', in DS Lev & RMcVey (eds), Making Indonesia: Essays on Modern Indonesia in Honor of George McT Kahin, Ithaca, NY: Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University, 1996.
11. MT Berger, 'Post-cold war Indonesia and the revenge of history: the colonial legacy, nationalist visions and global capitalism', in MT Berger & DA Borer (eds), The Rise of East Asia: Critical Visions of the Pacific Century, London: Routledge, 1997; and R McVey, 'Building behemoth: Indonesian constructions of the nation-state', in DS Lev & RMcVey (eds), Making Indonesia: Essays on Modern Indonesia in Honor of George McT Kahin, Ithaca, NY: Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University, 1996.
12. RH Jackson, Quasi-States: Sovereignty, International Relations and the Third World, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
13. RA Packenham, Liberal America and the Third World: Political Development Ideas in Foreign Aid and Social Science, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973, pp 52-53.
14. MT Berger, 'Southeast Asian trajectories: Eurocentrism and the history of the modern nation-state', Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, Vol 28, No 3, 1996.
15. George McT Kahin's classic early study of the Indonesian national revolution, which first appeared in the early 1950s, not surprisingly reflects this optimism. See G McT Kahin, Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1952.
16. C Geertz, 'The integrative revolution: primordial sentiments and civil politics in the new states', in C Geertz (ed), Old Societies and New States: The Quest for Modernity in Asia and Africa, London: Macmillan, 1963, pp 153-157, 130-133. See also R Emerson, From Empire to Nation: The Rise to Self-assertion of Asian and African Peoples, Boston: Beacon Press, 1962; and K Silvert (ed), Expectant Peoples: Nationalism and Development, New York: Random House, 1963. Ironically, while North American social scientists were concerned with the integration of the new nation of Indonesia, the US government was playing a key role in supporting the rebellions of the late 1950s as part of its efforts to destabilise the Sukarno government, which was seen as communist-influenced. In 1957 and 1958 the US initiated a CIA-led covert operation, involving the US Navy and elements of the US airforce, which was larger in scale and scope than the much more well know Bay of Pigs operation against Cuba in the early 1960s. See AR Kahin and G McT Kahin, Subversion as Foreign Policy: The Secret Eisenhower and Dulles Debacle in Indonesia, New York: New Press, 1995.
17. C Geertz, 'The integrative revolution: primordial sentiments and civil politics in the new states', in C Geertz (ed), Old Societies and New States: The Quest for Modernity in Asia and Africa, London: Macmillan, 1963, pp 153-157, 130-133. See also R Emerson, From Empire to Nation: The Rise to Self-assertion of Asian and African Peoples, Boston: Beacon Press, 1962; and K Silvert (ed), Expectant Peoples: Nationalism and Development, New York: Random House, 1963. Ironically, while North American social scientists were concerned with the integration of the new nation of Indonesia, the US government was playing a key role in supporting the rebellions of the late 1950s as part of its efforts to destabilise the Sukarno government, which was seen as communist-influenced. In 1957 and 1958 the US initiated a CIA-led covert operation, involving the US Navy and elements of the US airforce, which was larger in scale and scope than the much more well know Bay of Pigs operation against Cuba in the early 1960s. See AR Kahin and G McT Kahin, Subversion as Foreign Policy: The Secret Eisenhower and Dulles Debacle in Indonesia, New York: New Press, 1995.
18. C Geertz, 'The integrative revolution: primordial sentiments and civil politics in the new states', in C Geertz (ed), Old Societies and New States: The Quest for Modernity in Asia and Africa, London: Macmillan, 1963, pp 153-157, 130-133. See also R Emerson, From Empire to Nation: The Rise to Self-assertion of Asian and African Peoples, Boston: Beacon Press, 1962; and K Silvert (ed), Expectant Peoples: Nationalism and Development, New York: Random House, 1963. Ironically, while North American social scientists were concerned with the integration of the new nation of Indonesia, the US government was playing a key role in supporting the rebellions of the late 1950s as part of its efforts to destabilise the Sukarno government, which was seen as communist-influenced. In 1957 and 1958 the US initiated a CIA-led covert operation, involving the US Navy and elements of the US airforce, which was larger in scale and scope than the much more well know Bay of Pigs operation against Cuba in the early 1960s. See AR Kahin and G McT Kahin, Subversion as Foreign Policy: The Secret Eisenhower and Dulles Debacle in Indonesia, New York: New Press, 1995.
19. C Geertz, 'The integrative revolution: primordial sentiments and civil politics in the new states', in C Geertz (ed), Old Societies and New States: The Quest for Modernity in Asia and Africa, London: Macmillan, 1963, pp 153-157, 130-133. See also R Emerson, From Empire to Nation: The Rise to Self-assertion of Asian and African Peoples, Boston: Beacon Press, 1962; and K Silvert (ed), Expectant Peoples: Nationalism and Development, New York: Random House, 1963. Ironically, while North American social scientists were concerned with the integration of the new nation of Indonesia, the US government was playing a key role in supporting the rebellions of the late 1950s as part of its efforts to destabilise the Sukarno government, which was seen as communist-influenced. In 1957 and 1958 the US initiated a CIA-led covert operation, involving the US Navy and elements of the US airforce, which was larger in scale and scope than the much more well know Bay of Pigs operation against Cuba in the early 1960s. See AR Kahin and G McT Kahin, Subversion as Foreign Policy: The Secret Eisenhower and Dulles Debacle in Indonesia, New York: New Press, 1995.
20. H Feith, The Decline of Constitutional Democracy in Indonesia, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1962; and DS Lev, The Transition to Guided Democracy: Indonesian Politics 1957-1959, Ithaca, NY: Cornell Modern Indonesia Project Monograph, 1966.
21. H Feith, The Decline of Constitutional Democracy in Indonesia, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1962; and DS Lev, The Transition to Guided Democracy: Indonesian Politics 1957-1959, Ithaca, NY: Cornell Modern Indonesia Project Monograph, 1966.
22. Gabriel Kolko has characterised this approach as military modernisation theory. G Kolko, Confronting the Third World: United States Foreign Policy 1945-1980, New York: Pantheon, 1988, pp 132-133 . For example, see GJ Pauker, 'The role of the military in Indonesia', in JJ Johnson (ed), The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962.
23. Gabriel Kolko has characterised this approach as military modernisation theory. G Kolko, Confronting the Third World: United States Foreign Policy 1945-1980, New York: Pantheon, 1988, pp 132-133 . For example, see GJ Pauker, 'The role of the military in Indonesia', in JJ Johnson (ed), The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962.
24. S P Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1968. See C Leys, 'Samuel Huntington and the end of classical modernization theory', in Leys, The Rise and Fall of Development Theory, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1996.
25. S P Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1968. See C Leys, 'Samuel Huntington and the end of classical modernization theory', in Leys, The Rise and Fall of Development Theory, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1996.
26. B Glassburner, 'Economic policy-making in Indonesia, 1950-57' and 'Indonesian economic policy after Sukarno', in Glassburner (ed), The Economy of Indonesia: Selected Readings, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1971. B Glassburner, 'Political economy and the Suharto regime', Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, Vol 14, No 3, 1978. This approach is discussed in Richard Robison, 'Class, capital and the state in New Order Indonesia', in Richard Higgott & Richard Robison (eds), Southeast Asia: Essays in the Political Economy of Structural Change, London: Routledge, 1985, p 296.
27. B Glassburner, 'Economic policy-making in Indonesia, 1950-57' and 'Indonesian economic policy after Sukarno', in Glassburner (ed), The Economy of Indonesia: Selected Readings, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1971. B Glassburner, 'Political economy and the Suharto regime', Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, Vol 14, No 3, 1978. This approach is discussed in Richard Robison, 'Class, capital and the state in New Order Indonesia', in Richard Higgott & Richard Robison (eds), Southeast Asia: Essays in the Political Economy of Structural Change, London: Routledge, 1985, p 296.
28. B Glassburner, 'Economic policy-making in Indonesia, 1950-57' and 'Indonesian economic policy after Sukarno', in Glassburner (ed), The Economy of Indonesia: Selected Readings, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1971. B Glassburner, 'Political economy and the Suharto regime', Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, Vol 14, No 3, 1978. This approach is discussed in Richard Robison, 'Class, capital and the state in New Order Indonesia', in Richard Higgott & Richard Robison (eds), Southeast Asia: Essays in the Political Economy of Structural Change, London: Routledge, 1985, p 296.
29. GJ Pauker, 'Indonesia: the age of reason?', Asian Survey, Vol 8, No 2, 1968. Also see an article by the former US ambassador to Indonesia, John M Allison, who enthused that the 'greatest encouragement for the future' of Indonesia 'remains the character and intelligence of the leaders of the New Order'. J M Allison, 'Indonesia: year of the pragmatists', Asian Survey, Vol 9, No 2, 1969, p 137. Allison was hitting a less optimistic, but still very supportive, note a year later. See Allison, 'Indonesia: the end of the beginning?', Asian Survey, Vol 10, No 2, 1969.
30. GJ Pauker, 'Indonesia: the age of reason?', Asian Survey, Vol 8, No 2, 1968. Also see an article by the former US ambassador to Indonesia, John M Allison, who enthused that the 'greatest encouragement for the future' of Indonesia 'remains the character and intelligence of the leaders of the New Order'. J M Allison, 'Indonesia: year of the pragmatists', Asian Survey, Vol 9, No 2, 1969, p 137. Allison was hitting a less optimistic, but still very supportive, note a year later. See Allison, 'Indonesia: the end of the beginning?', Asian Survey, Vol 10, No 2, 1969.
31. GJ Pauker, 'Indonesia: the age of reason?', Asian Survey, Vol 8, No 2, 1968. Also see an article by the former US ambassador to Indonesia, John M Allison, who enthused that the 'greatest encouragement for the future' of Indonesia 'remains the character and intelligence of the leaders of the New Order'. J M Allison, 'Indonesia: year of the pragmatists', Asian Survey, Vol 9, No 2, 1969, p 137. Allison was hitting a less optimistic, but still very supportive, note a year later. See Allison, 'Indonesia: the end of the beginning?', Asian Survey, Vol 10, No 2, 1969.
32. See A Moertopo, Some Basic Thoughts on the Acceleration and Modernization of 25 Years' Development, Jakarta Centre for Strategic and International Studies, 1972. See D Bourchier, 'Lineages of organicist political thought in Indonesia', unpublished PhD thesis, Melbourne: Monash University, 1996, pp 156, 176, 196-197, 294. (A revised version is to be published, London: Routledge, 1997.)
33. See A Moertopo, Some Basic Thoughts on the Acceleration and Modernization of 25 Years' Development, Jakarta Centre for Strategic and International Studies, 1972. See D Bourchier, 'Lineages of organicist political thought in Indonesia', unpublished PhD thesis, Melbourne: Monash University, 1996, pp 156, 176, 196-197, 294. (A revised version is to be published, London: Routledge, 1997.)
34. See, for example, KD Jackson, Traditional Authority, Islam and Rebellion: A Study of Indonesian Political Behavior, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980.
35. SN Eisenstadt, 'The influence of colonial and traditional political systems on the development of post-traditional social and political orders', in HD Evers (ed), Modernization in South-East Asia, 1973, reprinted in CE Black (ed), Comparative Modernization: A Reader, New York: The Free Press, 1976.
36. SN Eisenstadt, 'The influence of colonial and traditional political systems on the development of post-traditional social and political orders', in HD Evers (ed), Modernization in South-East Asia, 1973, reprinted in CE Black (ed), Comparative Modernization: A Reader, New York: The Free Press, 1976.
37. H Crouch, 'Patrimonialism and Military Rule in Indonesia', World Politics, Vol 31, No 4, 1979, pp 571-573, 575, 579, 587, reprinted in A Kohli (ed), The State and Development in the Third World, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986. See H Crouch, The Army and Politics in Indonesia, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988.
38. H Crouch, 'Patrimonialism and Military Rule in Indonesia', World Politics, Vol 31, No 4, 1979, pp 571-573, 575, 579, 587, reprinted in A Kohli (ed), The State and Development in the Third World, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986. See H Crouch, The Army and Politics in Indonesia, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988.
39. H Crouch, 'Patrimonialism and Military Rule in Indonesia', World Politics, Vol 31, No 4, 1979, pp 571-573, 575, 579, 587, reprinted in A Kohli (ed), The State and Development in the Third World, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986. See H Crouch, The Army and Politics in Indonesia, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988.
40. GA O'Donnell, 'Reflections on the patterns of change in the bureaucratic-authoritarian state', Latin American Research Review, Vol 13, No 1, 1978.
41. B Moore, Jr, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World, Boston: Beacon Press, 1966.
42. P Evans, D Rueschemeyer & T Skocpol (eds), Bringing the State Back In, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985, p vii.
43. D Collier, 'The bureaucratic-authoritarian model: synthesis and priorities for future research', in Collier (ed), The New Authoritarianism in Latin America, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979.
44. DY King, 'Indonesia's New Order as a bureaucratic polity, a neopatrimonial regime, or a bureaucratic-authoritarian regime: what difference does it make?', in B Anderson & A Kahin (eds), Interpreting Indonesian Politics: Thirteen Contributions to the Debate, Ithaca, NY: Cornell Modern Indonesia Project, 1982, pp 110-116. Some writers challenged those interpretations influenced by bureaucratic-authoritarianism which represented the New Order state as relatively monolithic, emphasising its still decentralised and even pluralist aspects. For example, in the early 1980s, Donald K Emmerson argued that the best way to characterise the New Order was the notion of 'bureaucratic pluralism'. DK Emmerson, 'Understanding the New Order: bureaucratic pluralism in Indonesia', Asian Survey, Vol 23, No 11, 1983. See also DK Emmerson, Indonesia's Elite: Political Culture and Cultural Politics, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1976. R William Liddle's approach to the New Order in the 1980s has been characterised as 'restricted pluralism'. See Liddle, 'The politics of shared growth: some Indonesian cases', Comparative Politics, Vol 19, No 2, 1983; and Liddle, 'Suharto's Indonesia: personal rule and political institutions', Pacific Affairs, Vol 58, No 1, 1985.
45. DY King, 'Indonesia's New Order as a bureaucratic polity, a neopatrimonial regime, or a bureaucratic-authoritarian regime: what difference does it make?', in B Anderson & A Kahin (eds), Interpreting Indonesian Politics: Thirteen Contributions to the Debate, Ithaca, NY: Cornell Modern Indonesia Project, 1982, pp 110-116. Some writers challenged those interpretations influenced by bureaucratic-authoritarianism which represented the New Order state as relatively monolithic, emphasising its still decentralised and even pluralist aspects. For example, in the early 1980s, Donald K Emmerson argued that the best way to characterise the New Order was the notion of 'bureaucratic pluralism'. DK Emmerson, 'Understanding the New Order: bureaucratic pluralism in Indonesia', Asian Survey, Vol 23, No 11, 1983. See also DK Emmerson, Indonesia's Elite: Political Culture and Cultural Politics, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1976. R William Liddle's approach to the New Order in the 1980s has been characterised as 'restricted pluralism'. See Liddle, 'The politics of shared growth: some Indonesian cases', Comparative Politics, Vol 19, No 2, 1983; and Liddle, 'Suharto's Indonesia: personal rule and political institutions', Pacific Affairs, Vol 58, No 1, 1985.
46. DY King, 'Indonesia's New Order as a bureaucratic polity, a neopatrimonial regime, or a bureaucratic-authoritarian regime: what difference does it make?', in B Anderson & A Kahin (eds), Interpreting Indonesian Politics: Thirteen Contributions to the Debate, Ithaca, NY: Cornell Modern Indonesia Project, 1982, pp 110-116. Some writers challenged those interpretations influenced by bureaucratic-authoritarianism which represented the New Order state as relatively monolithic, emphasising its still decentralised and even pluralist aspects. For example, in the early 1980s, Donald K Emmerson argued that the best way to characterise the New Order was the notion of 'bureaucratic pluralism'. DK Emmerson, 'Understanding the New Order: bureaucratic pluralism in Indonesia', Asian Survey, Vol 23, No 11, 1983. See also DK Emmerson, Indonesia's Elite: Political Culture and Cultural Politics, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1976. R William Liddle's approach to the New Order in the 1980s has been characterised as 'restricted pluralism'. See Liddle, 'The politics of shared growth: some Indonesian cases', Comparative Politics, Vol 19, No 2, 1983; and Liddle, 'Suharto's Indonesia: personal rule and political institutions', Pacific Affairs, Vol 58, No 1, 1985.
47. DY King, 'Indonesia's New Order as a bureaucratic polity, a neopatrimonial regime, or a bureaucratic-authoritarian regime: what difference does it make?', in B Anderson & A Kahin (eds), Interpreting Indonesian Politics: Thirteen Contributions to the Debate, Ithaca, NY: Cornell Modern Indonesia Project, 1982, pp 110-116. Some writers challenged those interpretations influenced by bureaucratic-authoritarianism which represented the New Order state as relatively monolithic, emphasising its still decentralised and even pluralist aspects. For example, in the early 1980s, Donald K Emmerson argued that the best way to characterise the New Order was the notion of 'bureaucratic pluralism'. DK Emmerson, 'Understanding the New Order: bureaucratic pluralism in Indonesia', Asian Survey, Vol 23, No 11, 1983. See also DK Emmerson, Indonesia's Elite: Political Culture and Cultural Politics, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1976. R William Liddle's approach to the New Order in the 1980s has been characterised as 'restricted pluralism'. See Liddle, 'The politics of shared growth: some Indonesian cases', Comparative Politics, Vol 19, No 2, 1983; and Liddle, 'Suharto's Indonesia: personal rule and political institutions', Pacific Affairs, Vol 58, No 1, 1985.
48. DY King, 'Indonesia's New Order as a bureaucratic polity, a neopatrimonial regime, or a bureaucratic-authoritarian regime: what difference does it make?', in B Anderson & A Kahin (eds), Interpreting Indonesian Politics: Thirteen Contributions to the Debate, Ithaca, NY: Cornell Modern Indonesia Project, 1982, pp 110-116. Some writers challenged those interpretations influenced by bureaucratic-authoritarianism which represented the New Order state as relatively monolithic, emphasising its still decentralised and even pluralist aspects. For example, in the early 1980s, Donald K Emmerson argued that the best way to characterise the New Order was the notion of 'bureaucratic pluralism'. DK Emmerson, 'Understanding the New Order: bureaucratic pluralism in Indonesia', Asian Survey, Vol 23, No 11, 1983. See also DK Emmerson, Indonesia's Elite: Political Culture and Cultural Politics, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1976. R William Liddle's approach to the New Order in the 1980s has been characterised as 'restricted pluralism'. See Liddle, 'The politics of shared growth: some Indonesian cases', Comparative Politics, Vol 19, No 2, 1983; and Liddle, 'Suharto's Indonesia: personal rule and political institutions', Pacific Affairs, Vol 58, No 1, 1985.
49. J Mackie, 'Indonesia: economic growth and depoliticization', in JW Morley (ed), Driven By Growth: Political Change in the Asia-Pacific Region, London: ME Sharpe, 1993, p 69. The patrimonialism of the New Order is also emphasised in J Mackie & A MacIntyre 'Politics', in H Hill (ed), Indonesia's New Order: The Dynamics of Socio-Economic Transformation, Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1994, pp 6-7.
50. J Mackie, 'Indonesia: economic growth and depoliticization', in JW Morley (ed), Driven By Growth: Political Change in the Asia-Pacific Region, London: ME Sharpe, 1993, p 69. The patrimonialism of the New Order is also emphasised in J Mackie & A MacIntyre 'Politics', in H Hill (ed), Indonesia's New Order: The Dynamics of Socio-Economic Transformation, Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1994, pp 6-7.
51. See A MacIntyre, Business and Politics in Indonesia, Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1991; and D Brown, The State and Ethnic Politics in Southeast Asia, London: Routledge, 1994, pp 112-157.
52. See A MacIntyre, Business and Politics in Indonesia, Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1991; and D Brown, The State and Ethnic Politics in Southeast Asia, London: Routledge, 1994, pp 112-157.
53. A MacIntyre, 'Power, prosperity and patrimonialism', in MacIntyre (ed), Business and Government in Industrialising Asia, Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1994, pp. 255-257, 264.
54. A MacIntyre, 'Business, government and development: Northeast and Southeast Asian comparisons', in MacIntyre (ed), Business and Government in Industrialising Asia, p 16.
55. A Budiman 'Introduction', in Budiman (ed), State and Civil Society in Indonesia, Clayton: Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1994; pp 1-14.
56. T Mitchell, 'The limits of the state: beyond statist approaches and their critics', American Political Science Review, Vol 85, No 1, 1991, pp 81-88. Also see G Rodan, 'Theorising political opposition in East and Southeast Asia', in G Rodan (ed), Political Opposition in Industrialising Asia, London: Routledge, 1996, pp 20-29.
57. T Mitchell, 'The limits of the state: beyond statist approaches and their critics', American Political Science Review, Vol 85, No 1, 1991, pp 81-88. Also see G Rodan, 'Theorising political opposition in East and Southeast Asia', in G Rodan (ed), Political Opposition in Industrialising Asia, London: Routledge, 1996, pp 20-29.
58. D Allen, 'Antiwar Asian scholars and the Vietnam/Indochina war', Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, Vol 21, Nos 2-4, 1989.
59. In Indonesia itself, Marxist analysis has had even more limited purchase since the 1960s. In the 1950s and early 1960s, in the context of an emerging alliance between Sukarno and the PKI, most Indonesian Marxists were committed nationalists. At the same time, the Marxist theory which prevailed was based on Stalinist and early Maoist theory. By the mid-1960s both the PKI and Indonesian Marxism had been more or less uprooted. B Anderson, 'Radicalism after communism in Thailand and Indonesia', New Left Review, No. 202, 1993, pp 3-6, 8; R Mortimer, Indonesian Communism Under Sukarno: Ideology and Politics 1959-1965, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1974; and O Törnquist, Dilemmas of Third World Communism: The Destruction of the PKI in Indonesia, London: Zed Press, 1984. But the radical nationalist ideas, including Indonesian variants of Marxism, could not be completely eliminated among the intellectual elite or among the urban and rural subaltern classes. M Lane, 'Voices of dissent in Indonesia', Arena, No 61, 1982, pp 110-128; and C Warren, Adat and Dinas: Balinese Communities in the Indonesian State, Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1993, pp 271-277.
60. In Indonesia itself, Marxist analysis has had even more limited purchase since the 1960s. In the 1950s and early 1960s, in the context of an emerging alliance between Sukarno and the PKI, most Indonesian Marxists were committed nationalists. At the same time, the Marxist theory which prevailed was based on Stalinist and early Maoist theory. By the mid-1960s both the PKI and Indonesian Marxism had been more or less uprooted. B Anderson, 'Radicalism after communism in Thailand and Indonesia', New Left Review, No. 202, 1993, pp 3-6, 8; R Mortimer, Indonesian Communism Under Sukarno: Ideology and Politics 1959-1965, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1974; and O Törnquist, Dilemmas of Third World Communism: The Destruction of the PKI in Indonesia, London: Zed Press, 1984. But the radical nationalist ideas, including Indonesian variants of Marxism, could not be completely eliminated among the intellectual elite or among the urban and rural subaltern classes. M Lane, 'Voices of dissent in Indonesia', Arena, No 61, 1982, pp 110-128; and C Warren, Adat and Dinas: Balinese Communities in the Indonesian State, Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1993, pp 271-277.
61. In Indonesia itself, Marxist analysis has had even more limited purchase since the 1960s. In the 1950s and early 1960s, in the context of an emerging alliance between Sukarno and the PKI, most Indonesian Marxists were committed nationalists. At the same time, the Marxist theory which prevailed was based on Stalinist and early Maoist theory. By the mid-1960s both the PKI and Indonesian Marxism had been more or less uprooted. B Anderson, 'Radicalism after communism in Thailand and Indonesia', New Left Review, No. 202, 1993, pp 3-6, 8; R Mortimer, Indonesian Communism Under Sukarno: Ideology and Politics 1959-1965, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1974; and O Törnquist, Dilemmas of Third World Communism: The Destruction of the PKI in Indonesia, London: Zed Press, 1984. But the radical nationalist ideas, including Indonesian variants of Marxism, could not be completely eliminated among the intellectual elite or among the urban and rural subaltern classes. M Lane, 'Voices of dissent in Indonesia', Arena, No 61, 1982, pp 110-128; and C Warren, Adat and Dinas: Balinese Communities in the Indonesian State, Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1993, pp 271-277.
62. In Indonesia itself, Marxist analysis has had even more limited purchase since the 1960s. In the 1950s and early 1960s, in the context of an emerging alliance between Sukarno and the PKI, most Indonesian Marxists were committed nationalists. At the same time, the Marxist theory which prevailed was based on Stalinist and early Maoist theory. By the mid-1960s both the PKI and Indonesian Marxism had been more or less uprooted. B Anderson, 'Radicalism after communism in Thailand and Indonesia', New Left Review, No. 202, 1993, pp 3-6, 8; R Mortimer, Indonesian Communism Under Sukarno: Ideology and Politics 1959-1965, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1974; and O Törnquist, Dilemmas of Third World Communism: The Destruction of the PKI in Indonesia, London: Zed Press, 1984. But the radical nationalist ideas, including Indonesian variants of Marxism, could not be completely eliminated among the intellectual elite or among the urban and rural subaltern classes. M Lane, 'Voices of dissent in Indonesia', Arena, No 61, 1982, pp 110-128; and C Warren, Adat and Dinas: Balinese Communities in the Indonesian State, Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1993, pp 271-277.
63. In Indonesia itself, Marxist analysis has had even more limited purchase since the 1960s. In the 1950s and early 1960s, in the context of an emerging alliance between Sukarno and the PKI, most Indonesian Marxists were committed nationalists. At the same time, the Marxist theory which prevailed was based on Stalinist and early Maoist theory. By the mid-1960s both the PKI and Indonesian Marxism had been more or less uprooted. B Anderson, 'Radicalism after communism in Thailand and Indonesia', New Left Review, No. 202, 1993, pp 3-6, 8; R Mortimer, Indonesian Communism Under Sukarno: Ideology and Politics 1959-1965, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1974; and O Törnquist, Dilemmas of Third World Communism: The Destruction of the PKI in Indonesia, London: Zed Press, 1984. But the radical nationalist ideas, including Indonesian variants of Marxism, could not be completely eliminated among the intellectual elite or among the urban and rural subaltern classes. M Lane, 'Voices of dissent in Indonesia', Arena, No 61, 1982, pp 110-128; and C Warren, Adat and Dinas: Balinese Communities in the Indonesian State, Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1993, pp 271-277.
64. On the Latin American origins and the rise and dissemination of dependency theory, as well as its relationship to Marxism and the dominant liberal discourses see MT Berger, Under Northern Eyes: Latin American Studies and US Hegemony in the Americas 1898-1990, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1995, pp 106-121.
65. D Ransom, 'The Berkeley Mafia and the Indonesian massacre', Ramparts, October 1970; Ransom, 'Ford country: building an elite for Indonesia', in S Weissman, et al. (eds), The Trojan Horse: A Radical Look at Foreign Aid, Palo Alto, CA: Ramparts, 1974; and M Caldwell, 'Oil imperialism in Southeast Asia', in M Selden (ed), Re-Making Asia: Essays on the American Uses of Power, New York: Pantheon, 1974.
66. D Ransom, 'The Berkeley Mafia and the Indonesian massacre', Ramparts, October 1970; Ransom, 'Ford country: building an elite for Indonesia', in S Weissman, et al. (eds), The Trojan Horse: A Radical Look at Foreign Aid, Palo Alto, CA: Ramparts, 1974; and M Caldwell, 'Oil imperialism in Southeast Asia', in M Selden (ed), Re-Making Asia: Essays on the American Uses of Power, New York: Pantheon, 1974.
67. D Ransom, 'The Berkeley Mafia and the Indonesian massacre', Ramparts, October 1970; Ransom, 'Ford country: building an elite for Indonesia', in S Weissman, et al. (eds), The Trojan Horse: A Radical Look at Foreign Aid, Palo Alto, CA: Ramparts, 1974; and M Caldwell, 'Oil imperialism in Southeast Asia', in M Selden (ed), Re-Making Asia: Essays on the American Uses of Power, New York: Pantheon, 1974.
68. R Mortimer, 'Indonesia: growth or development', in Mortimer (ed), Showcase State: The Illusion of Indonesia's 'Accelerated Modernisation', Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1973. By the beginning of the 1980s Indonesian activists and intellectuals, such as Arief Sritua and Adi Sasono, had produced studies of Indonesian political economy that clearly worked from a dependency perspective. A Sritua & A Sasono, Indonesia: Dependency and Underdevelopment, Kuala Lumpur META, 1981; first published in Indonesian as Indonesia, ketergantungan dan keterbelakangan.
69. R Mortimer, 'Indonesia: growth or development', in Mortimer (ed), Showcase State: The Illusion of Indonesia's 'Accelerated Modernisation', Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1973. By the beginning of the 1980s Indonesian activists and intellectuals, such as Arief Sritua and Adi Sasono, had produced studies of Indonesian political economy that clearly worked from a dependency perspective. A Sritua & A Sasono, Indonesia: Dependency and Underdevelopment, Kuala Lumpur META, 1981; first published in Indonesian as Indonesia, ketergantungan dan keterbelakangan.
70. World-system theory, the main outgrowth of classic dependency theory, emerged as the most influential single trend in radical North American social science by the 1970s. P Buhle, Marxism in the USA: From 1870 to the Present Day, London: Verso, 1987, p 265.
71. V Randall & R Theobald, Political Change and Underdevelopment: A Critical Introduction to Third World Politics, London: Macmillan, 1985, pp 137-138, 148-171. For a critical review of theories of the capitalist state see B Jessop, State Theory: Putting Capitalist States in Their Place, University Park: Pennsylvania University Press, 1990. Also building on debates within Marxism, particularly British and French Marxism, the modes of production approach rose to prominence in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The modes of production approach represented, among other things, a response to dependency theory and later world-system theory's privileging of the market over relations of production. This approach emphasised that some pre-capitalist modes of production in the periphery have proved highly resilient to the expansion of capitalism and have not disappeared as anticipated. The problem of underdevelopment was seen as the result of a more protracted transition, because the processes of modernisation and urban industrialisation in the periphery are dependent for a long time on pre-capitalist modes of production in the countryside which have articulated with an externally imposed capitalist mode of production. Efforts to apply the modes of production approach to the history of Indonesia include A Gordon, 'Stages in the development of Java's socio-economic formations 1700-1979', Journal of Contemporary Asia, Vol 7, No 2, 1979 . Also see F Tichelman, The Social Evolution of Indonesia: The Asiatic Mode of Production and Its Legacy, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1980. For good discussions of the modes of production debate see A Foster-Carter, 'The modes of production controversy', New Left Review, No 107, 1978; and E Wolf, Europe and the People Without History, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982, pp 3-23, 73-100.
72. V Randall & R Theobald, Political Change and Underdevelopment: A Critical Introduction to Third World Politics, London: Macmillan, 1985, pp 137-138, 148-171. For a critical review of theories of the capitalist state see B Jessop, State Theory: Putting Capitalist States in Their Place, University Park: Pennsylvania University Press, 1990. Also building on debates within Marxism, particularly British and French Marxism, the modes of production approach rose to prominence in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The modes of production approach represented, among other things, a response to dependency theory and later world-system theory's privileging of the market over relations of production. This approach emphasised that some pre-capitalist modes of production in the periphery have proved highly resilient to the expansion of capitalism and have not disappeared as anticipated. The problem of underdevelopment was seen as the result of a more protracted transition, because the processes of modernisation and urban industrialisation in the periphery are dependent for a long time on pre-capitalist modes of production in the countryside which have articulated with an externally imposed capitalist mode of production. Efforts to apply the modes of production approach to the history of Indonesia include A Gordon, 'Stages in the development of Java's socio-economic formations 1700-1979', Journal of Contemporary Asia, Vol 7, No 2, 1979 . Also see F Tichelman, The Social Evolution of Indonesia: The Asiatic Mode of Production and Its Legacy, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1980. For good discussions of the modes of production debate see A Foster-Carter, 'The modes of production controversy', New Left Review, No 107, 1978; and E Wolf, Europe and the People Without History, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982, pp 3-23, 73-100.
73. V Randall & R Theobald, Political Change and Underdevelopment: A Critical Introduction to Third World Politics, London: Macmillan, 1985, pp 137-138, 148-171. For a critical review of theories of the capitalist state see B Jessop, State Theory: Putting Capitalist States in Their Place, University Park: Pennsylvania University Press, 1990. Also building on debates within Marxism, particularly British and French Marxism, the modes of production approach rose to prominence in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The modes of production approach represented, among other things, a response to dependency theory and later world-system theory's privileging of the market over relations of production. This approach emphasised that some pre-capitalist modes of production in the periphery have proved highly resilient to the expansion of capitalism and have not disappeared as anticipated. The problem of underdevelopment was seen as the result of a more protracted transition, because the processes of modernisation and urban industrialisation in the periphery are dependent for a long time on pre-capitalist modes of production in the countryside which have articulated with an externally imposed capitalist mode of production. Efforts to apply the modes of production approach to the history of Indonesia include A Gordon, 'Stages in the development of Java's socio-economic formations 1700-1979', Journal of Contemporary Asia, Vol 7, No 2, 1979 . Also see F Tichelman, The Social Evolution of Indonesia: The Asiatic Mode of Production and Its Legacy, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1980. For good discussions of the modes of production debate see A Foster-Carter, 'The modes of production controversy', New Left Review, No 107, 1978; and E Wolf, Europe and the People Without History, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982, pp 3-23, 73-100.
74. V Randall & R Theobald, Political Change and Underdevelopment: A Critical Introduction to Third World Politics, London: Macmillan, 1985, pp 137-138, 148-171. For a critical review of theories of the capitalist state see B Jessop, State Theory: Putting Capitalist States in Their Place, University Park: Pennsylvania University Press, 1990. Also building on debates within Marxism, particularly British and French Marxism, the modes of production approach rose to prominence in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The modes of production approach represented, among other things, a response to dependency theory and later world-system theory's privileging of the market over relations of production. This approach emphasised that some pre-capitalist modes of production in the periphery have proved highly resilient to the expansion of capitalism and have not disappeared as anticipated. The problem of underdevelopment was seen as the result of a more protracted transition, because the processes of modernisation and urban industrialisation in the periphery are dependent for a long time on pre-capitalist modes of production in the countryside which have articulated with an externally imposed capitalist mode of production. Efforts to apply the modes of production approach to the history of Indonesia include A Gordon, 'Stages in the development of Java's socio-economic formations 1700-1979', Journal of Contemporary Asia, Vol 7, No 2, 1979 . Also see F Tichelman, The Social Evolution of Indonesia: The Asiatic Mode of Production and Its Legacy, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1980. For good discussions of the modes of production debate see A Foster-Carter, 'The modes of production controversy', New Left Review, No 107, 1978; and E Wolf, Europe and the People Without History, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982, pp 3-23, 73-100.
75. V Randall & R Theobald, Political Change and Underdevelopment: A Critical Introduction to Third World Politics, London: Macmillan, 1985, pp 137-138, 148-171. For a critical review of theories of the capitalist state see B Jessop, State Theory: Putting Capitalist States in Their Place, University Park: Pennsylvania University Press, 1990. Also building on debates within Marxism, particularly British and French Marxism, the modes of production approach rose to prominence in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The modes of production approach represented, among other things, a response to dependency theory and later world-system theory's privileging of the market over relations of production. This approach emphasised that some pre-capitalist modes of production in the periphery have proved highly resilient to the expansion of capitalism and have not disappeared as anticipated. The problem of underdevelopment was seen as the result of a more protracted transition, because the processes of modernisation and urban industrialisation in the periphery are dependent for a long time on pre-capitalist modes of production in the countryside which have articulated with an externally imposed capitalist mode of production. Efforts to apply the modes of production approach to the history of Indonesia include A Gordon, 'Stages in the development of Java's socio-economic formations 1700-1979', Journal of Contemporary Asia, Vol 7, No 2, 1979 . Also see F Tichelman, The Social Evolution of Indonesia: The Asiatic Mode of Production and Its Legacy, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1980. For good discussions of the modes of production debate see A Foster-Carter, 'The modes of production controversy', New Left Review, No 107, 1978; and E Wolf, Europe and the People Without History, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982, pp 3-23, 73-100.
76. V Randall & R Theobald, Political Change and Underdevelopment: A Critical Introduction to Third World Politics, London: Macmillan, 1985, pp 137-138, 148-171. For a critical review of theories of the capitalist state see B Jessop, State Theory: Putting Capitalist States in Their Place, University Park: Pennsylvania University Press, 1990. Also building on debates within Marxism, particularly British and French Marxism, the modes of production approach rose to prominence in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The modes of production approach represented, among other things, a response to dependency theory and later world-system theory's privileging of the market over relations of production. This approach emphasised that some pre-capitalist modes of production in the periphery have proved highly resilient to the expansion of capitalism and have not disappeared as anticipated. The problem of underdevelopment was seen as the result of a more protracted transition, because the processes of modernisation and urban industrialisation in the periphery are dependent for a long time on pre-capitalist modes of production in the countryside which have articulated with an externally imposed capitalist mode of production. Efforts to apply the modes of production approach to the history of Indonesia include A Gordon, 'Stages in the development of Java's socio-economic formations 1700-1979', Journal of Contemporary Asia, Vol 7, No 2, 1979 . Also see F Tichelman, The Social Evolution of Indonesia: The Asiatic Mode of Production and Its Legacy, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1980. For good discussions of the modes of production debate see A Foster-Carter, 'The modes of production controversy', New Left Review, No 107, 1978; and E Wolf, Europe and the People Without History, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982, pp 3-23, 73-100.
77. R Robison, Indonesia: The Rise of Capital, Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1986, especially pp 118-126.
78. R Robison, 'Indonesia: tensions in state and regime' in K Hewison, R Robison & G Rodan (eds), Southeast Asia in the 1990s: Authoritarianism, Democracy and Capitalism, Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1993, pp 41-43, 45, 49, 70-72. Also see O Törnquist, What's Wrong With Marxism?: On Capitalists and State in India and Indonesia, New Delhi: Manohar, 1989. For a recent and illuminating study of the European origins of organicist political ideas in Indonesia see Bourchier, 'Lineages of organicist political thought in Indonesia, 1996.
79. R Robison, 'Indonesia: tensions in state and regime' in K Hewison, R Robison & G Rodan (eds), Southeast Asia in the 1990s: Authoritarianism, Democracy and Capitalism, Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1993, pp 41-43, 45, 49, 70-72. Also see O Törnquist, What's Wrong With Marxism?: On Capitalists and State in India and Indonesia, New Delhi: Manohar, 1989. For a recent and illuminating study of the European origins of organicist political ideas in Indonesia see Bourchier, 'Lineages of organicist political thought in Indonesia, 1996.
80. R Robison, 'Indonesia: tensions in state and regime' in K Hewison, R Robison & G Rodan (eds), Southeast Asia in the 1990s: Authoritarianism, Democracy and Capitalism, Sydney: Allen and Unwin, 1993, pp 41-43, 45, 49, 70-72. Also see O Törnquist, What's Wrong With Marxism?: On Capitalists and State in India and Indonesia, New Delhi: Manohar, 1989. For a recent and illuminating study of the European origins of organicist political ideas in Indonesia see Bourchier, 'Lineages of organicist political thought in Indonesia, 1996.
81. The classic revisionist analysis is A J Mayer, The Persistence of the Old Regime: Europe to the Great War, New York: Pantheon, 1981.
82. D Cannadine, The Decline and Fall of the British Aristocracy, New York: Anchor Books, 1992; pp 698-709.
83. Some tentative steps toward problematising the nation as a natural unit of analysis are apparent, however, in Jeffrey Winters's recent work of structural political economy, which uses Indonesia as a case study of globalisation. Winters challenges conventional categories of foreign and domestic capital (international and national) in favour of an approach which focuses on the structural power of capital in terms of its relative mobility rather than its nationality. J A Winters, Power in Motion: Capital Mobility and the Indonesian State, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996.
84. Anderson distinguishes his definition of a nation as an 'imagined political community' from other writers, such as Gellner - who view the nation as an 'invention' - because their approach all too easily 'assimilates "invention" to "fabrication" and "falsity"'. B Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism, London, Verso, 1991; pp 3-7; and E Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1983. A good example of the invention approach in relation to Indonesia is David Kertzer's comment that 'playing rather loose with history, Indonesian political leaders speak of the three-hundred-and-fifty years of colonialism that Indonesia has endured even though the whole notion of Indonesia is a twentieth-century invention, and much of what is now included in the country was conquered by the Dutch colonialists only at the end of the last century'. DI Kertzer, Ritual, Politics and Power, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988, p 179 . The classic is still E Hobsbawm, 'Introduction: inventing traditions', in E Hobsbawm & T Ranger (eds), The Invention of Tradition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. For a concise summary of many of the key elements in the nationalism debate see B Anderson, 'Introduction' in G Balakrishnan (ed), Mapping the Nation, London: Verso, 1996.
85. Anderson distinguishes his definition of a nation as an 'imagined political community' from other writers, such as Gellner - who view the nation as an 'invention' - because their approach all too easily 'assimilates "invention" to "fabrication" and "falsity"'. B Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism, London, Verso, 1991; pp 3-7; and E Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1983. A good example of the invention approach in relation to Indonesia is David Kertzer's comment that 'playing rather loose with history, Indonesian political leaders speak of the three-hundred-and-fifty years of colonialism that Indonesia has endured even though the whole notion of Indonesia is a twentieth-century invention, and much of what is now included in the country was conquered by the Dutch colonialists only at the end of the last century'. DI Kertzer, Ritual, Politics and Power, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988, p 179 . The classic is still E Hobsbawm, 'Introduction: inventing traditions', in E Hobsbawm & T Ranger (eds), The Invention of Tradition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. For a concise summary of many of the key elements in the nationalism debate see B Anderson, 'Introduction' in G Balakrishnan (ed), Mapping the Nation, London: Verso, 1996.
86. Anderson distinguishes his definition of a nation as an 'imagined political community' from other writers, such as Gellner - who view the nation as an 'invention' - because their approach all too easily 'assimilates "invention" to "fabrication" and "falsity"'. B Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism, London, Verso, 1991; pp 3-7; and E Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1983. A good example of the invention approach in relation to Indonesia is David Kertzer's comment that 'playing rather loose with history, Indonesian political leaders speak of the three-hundred-and-fifty years of colonialism that Indonesia has endured even though the whole notion of Indonesia is a twentieth-century invention, and much of what is now included in the country was conquered by the Dutch colonialists only at the end of the last century'. DI Kertzer, Ritual, Politics and Power, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988, p 179 . The classic is still E Hobsbawm, 'Introduction: inventing traditions', in E Hobsbawm & T Ranger (eds), The Invention of Tradition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. For a concise summary of many of the key elements in the nationalism debate see B Anderson, 'Introduction' in G Balakrishnan (ed), Mapping the Nation, London: Verso, 1996.
87. Anderson distinguishes his definition of a nation as an 'imagined political community' from other writers, such as Gellner - who view the nation as an 'invention' - because their approach all too easily 'assimilates "invention" to "fabrication" and "falsity"'. B Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism, London, Verso, 1991; pp 3-7; and E Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1983. A good example of the invention approach in relation to Indonesia is David Kertzer's comment that 'playing rather loose with history, Indonesian political leaders speak of the three-hundred-and-fifty years of colonialism that Indonesia has endured even though the whole notion of Indonesia is a twentieth-century invention, and much of what is now included in the country was conquered by the Dutch colonialists only at the end of the last century'. DI Kertzer, Ritual, Politics and Power, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988, p 179 . The classic is still E Hobsbawm, 'Introduction: inventing traditions', in E Hobsbawm & T Ranger (eds), The Invention of Tradition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. For a concise summary of many of the key elements in the nationalism debate see B Anderson, 'Introduction' in G Balakrishnan (ed), Mapping the Nation, London: Verso, 1996.
88. Anderson distinguishes his definition of a nation as an 'imagined political community' from other writers, such as Gellner - who view the nation as an 'invention' - because their approach all too easily 'assimilates "invention" to "fabrication" and "falsity"'. B Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism, London, Verso, 1991; pp 3-7; and E Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1983. A good example of the invention approach in relation to Indonesia is David Kertzer's comment that 'playing rather loose with history, Indonesian political leaders speak of the three-hundred-and-fifty years of colonialism that Indonesia has endured even though the whole notion of Indonesia is a twentieth-century invention, and much of what is now included in the country was conquered by the Dutch colonialists only at the end of the last century'. DI Kertzer, Ritual, Politics and Power, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988, p 179 . The classic is still E Hobsbawm, 'Introduction: inventing traditions', in E Hobsbawm & T Ranger (eds), The Invention of Tradition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. For a concise summary of many of the key elements in the nationalism debate see B Anderson, 'Introduction' in G Balakrishnan (ed), Mapping the Nation, London: Verso, 1996.
89. This approach is based in pan on Harry Benda's emphasis on the Dutch colonial state as a beamtenstaat. See HJ Benda, 'The pattern of administrative reforms in the closing years of Dutch rule in Indonesia' (1966), in HJ Benda, Continuity and Change in Southeast Asia: Collected Journal Articles of Harry J. Benda, New Haven, CT: Yale University Southeast Asian Studies, 1972. See Also RT McVey, 'The Beamtenstaat in Indonesia' (1977), in Anderson & Kahin (eds), Interpreting Indonesian Politics. This was followed by Heather Sutherland's study of the incorporation of the Javanese aristocracy into the Dutch colonial state. H Sutherland, The Making of a Bureaucratic Elite: The Colonial Transformation of the Javanese Priyayi, Singapore: Heinemann, 1979.
90. This approach is based in pan on Harry Benda's emphasis on the Dutch colonial state as a beamtenstaat. See HJ Benda, 'The pattern of administrative reforms in the closing years of Dutch rule in Indonesia' (1966), in HJ Benda, Continuity and Change in Southeast Asia: Collected Journal Articles of Harry J. Benda, New Haven, CT: Yale University Southeast Asian Studies, 1972. See Also RT McVey, 'The Beamtenstaat in Indonesia' (1977), in Anderson & Kahin (eds), Interpreting Indonesian Politics. This was followed by Heather Sutherland's study of the incorporation of the Javanese aristocracy into the Dutch colonial state. H Sutherland, The Making of a Bureaucratic Elite: The Colonial Transformation of the Javanese Priyayi, Singapore: Heinemann, 1979.
91. This approach is based in pan on Harry Benda's emphasis on the Dutch colonial state as a beamtenstaat. See HJ Benda, 'The pattern of administrative reforms in the closing years of Dutch rule in Indonesia' (1966), in HJ Benda, Continuity and Change in Southeast Asia: Collected Journal Articles of Harry J. Benda, New Haven, CT: Yale University Southeast Asian Studies, 1972. See Also RT McVey, 'The Beamtenstaat in Indonesia' (1977), in Anderson & Kahin (eds), Interpreting Indonesian Politics. This was followed by Heather Sutherland's study of the incorporation of the Javanese aristocracy into the Dutch colonial state. H Sutherland, The Making of a Bureaucratic Elite: The Colonial Transformation of the Javanese Priyayi, Singapore: Heinemann, 1979.
92. B Anderson, 'Old state, new society: Indonesia's New Order in comparative historical perspective', Journal of Asian Studies, Vol 42, No 2, 1983, reprinted in B Anderson, Language and Power: Exploring Political Cultures in Indonesia, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990, pp 94-95. The notion of the historic state has had considerable influence. See, for example, G Hart, 'Agrarian change in the context of state patronage', in G Hart, A Turton & B White (eds), Agrarian Transformations: Local Processes and the State in Southeast Asia, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.
93. B Anderson, 'Old state, new society: Indonesia's New Order in comparative historical perspective', Journal of Asian Studies, Vol 42, No 2, 1983, reprinted in B Anderson, Language and Power: Exploring Political Cultures in Indonesia, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990, pp 94-95. The notion of the historic state has had considerable influence. See, for example, G Hart, 'Agrarian change in the context of state patronage', in G Hart, A Turton & B White (eds), Agrarian Transformations: Local Processes and the State in Southeast Asia, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.
94. B Anderson, 'Old state, new society: Indonesia's New Order in comparative historical perspective', Journal of Asian Studies, Vol 42, No 2, 1983, reprinted in B Anderson, Language and Power: Exploring Political Cultures in Indonesia, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990, pp 94-95. The notion of the historic state has had considerable influence. See, for example, G Hart, 'Agrarian change in the context of state patronage', in G Hart, A Turton & B White (eds), Agrarian Transformations: Local Processes and the State in Southeast Asia, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.
95. For a brief overview of the reception of Anderson's work inside and outside Indonesia see P Stange, 'Chronicles of Javanese transition', Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, Vol 24, No 2, 1993.
96. Robison focused primarily on B Anderson, 'Nationalism and the state in modern Indonesia', which was a paper presented to the Japanese Political Science Association Round Table Conference on National Interest and Political Leadership, Tokyo, March-April 1982 and his 1972 essay on power. Robison, Indonesia, 1986, p 117. See also B Anderson, 'The idea of power in Javanese culture', in C Holt (ed), Culture and Politics in Indonesia, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1972, reprinted in Anderson, Language and Power. See also Anderson's postscript to the 1972 essay, 'Further adventures of charisma' (1985), in Anderson, Language and Power.
97. Robison focused primarily on B Anderson, 'Nationalism and the state in modern Indonesia', which was a paper presented to the Japanese Political Science Association Round Table Conference on National Interest and Political Leadership, Tokyo, March-April 1982 and his 1972 essay on power. Robison, Indonesia, 1986, p 117. See also B Anderson, 'The idea of power in Javanese culture', in C Holt (ed), Culture and Politics in Indonesia, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1972, reprinted in Anderson, Language and Power. See also Anderson's postscript to the 1972 essay, 'Further adventures of charisma' (1985), in Anderson, Language and Power.
98. Robison focused primarily on B Anderson, 'Nationalism and the state in modern Indonesia', which was a paper presented to the Japanese Political Science Association Round Table Conference on National Interest and Political Leadership, Tokyo, March-April 1982 and his 1972 essay on power. Robison, Indonesia, 1986, p 117. See also B Anderson, 'The idea of power in Javanese culture', in C Holt (ed), Culture and Politics in Indonesia, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1972, reprinted in Anderson, Language and Power. See also Anderson's postscript to the 1972 essay, 'Further adventures of charisma' (1985), in Anderson, Language and Power.
99. Robison focused primarily on B Anderson, 'Nationalism and the state in modern Indonesia', which was a paper presented to the Japanese Political Science Association Round Table Conference on National Interest and Political Leadership, Tokyo, March-April 1982 and his 1972 essay on power. Robison, Indonesia, 1986, p 117. See also B Anderson, 'The idea of power in Javanese culture', in C Holt (ed), Culture and Politics in Indonesia, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1972, reprinted in Anderson, Language and Power. See also Anderson's postscript to the 1972 essay, 'Further adventures of charisma' (1985), in Anderson, Language and Power.
100. Robison focused primarily on B Anderson, 'Nationalism and the state in modern Indonesia', which was a paper presented to the Japanese Political Science Association Round Table Conference on National Interest and Political Leadership, Tokyo, March-April 1982 and his 1972 essay on power. Robison, Indonesia, 1986, p 117. See also B Anderson, 'The idea of power in Javanese culture', in C Holt (ed), Culture and Politics in Indonesia, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1972, reprinted in Anderson, Language and Power. See also Anderson's postscript to the 1972 essay, 'Further adventures of charisma' (1985), in Anderson, Language and Power.
101. A Dirlik, After the Revolution: Waking to Global Capitalism, Hanover: Wesleyan University Press, 1994, pp 81-82; and MT. Berger, 'Post-cold war capitalism: modernisation and modes of resistance after the fall', Third World Quarterly, Vol 16, No 4, 1995.
102. A Dirlik, After the Revolution: Waking to Global Capitalism, Hanover: Wesleyan University Press, 1994, pp 81-82; and MT. Berger, 'Post-cold war capitalism: modernisation and modes of resistance after the fall', Third World Quarterly, Vol 16, No 4, 1995.
103. A Gordon, 'Imaginary histories and the real thing: a critique of Anderson and Benda on the "Autonomous" state in Indonesia', Journal of Contemporary Asia, Vol 23, No 4, 1993.
104. DEF Henley, 'Ethnogeographic integration and exclusion in anticolonial nationalism: Indonesia and Indochina', Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol 37, No 2, 1995; and CJ Christie, A Modern History of Southeast Asia: Decolonization, Nationalism and Separatism, London: IB Tauris, 1996, pp 140-159.
105. DEF Henley, 'Ethnogeographic integration and exclusion in anticolonial nationalism: Indonesia and Indochina', Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol 37, No 2, 1995; and CJ Christie, A Modern History of Southeast Asia: Decolonization, Nationalism and Separatism, London: IB Tauris, 1996, pp 140-159.
106. Chatterjee, Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World: A Derivative Discourse, London: Zed Press, 1986, p 161; Chatterjee, The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993; N B Dirks, 'Introduction: colonialism and culture', in N B Dirks (ed), Colonialism and Culture, Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1992, pp 23-24; and G Prakash, 'Introduction: after colonialism', in Prakash (ed), After Colonialism: Imperial Histories and Postcolonial Displacements, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995, p 16.
107. Chatterjee, Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World: A Derivative Discourse, London: Zed Press, 1986, p 161; Chatterjee, The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993; N B Dirks, 'Introduction: colonialism and culture', in N B Dirks (ed), Colonialism and Culture, Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1992, pp 23-24; and G Prakash, 'Introduction: after colonialism', in Prakash (ed), After Colonialism: Imperial Histories and Postcolonial Displacements, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995, p 16.
108. Chatterjee, Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World: A Derivative Discourse, London: Zed Press, 1986, p 161; Chatterjee, The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993; N B Dirks, 'Introduction: colonialism and culture', in N B Dirks (ed), Colonialism and Culture, Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1992, pp 23-24; and G Prakash, 'Introduction: after colonialism', in Prakash (ed), After Colonialism: Imperial Histories and Postcolonial Displacements, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995, p 16.
109. Chatterjee, Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World: A Derivative Discourse, London: Zed Press, 1986, p 161; Chatterjee, The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993; N B Dirks, 'Introduction: colonialism and culture', in N B Dirks (ed), Colonialism and Culture, Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1992, pp 23-24; and G Prakash, 'Introduction: after colonialism', in Prakash (ed), After Colonialism: Imperial Histories and Postcolonial Displacements, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995, p 16.
110. Anderson, 'Old state, new society', pp 96-99.
111. Sutherland, The Making of a Bureaucratic Elite.
112. Bourchier, Lineages of organicist political thought in Indonesia, pp 111-141.
113. For example, see AL Stoler, Capitalism and Confrontation in Sumatra's Plantation Belt 1870-1979, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985, pp 14-92.
114. R von Albertini, Decolonization: The Administration and Future of the Colonies 1919-1960, New York: Greenwood Press, 1982, pp. 487-513.
115. Anderson, 'Old state, new society', pp 99-100.
116. This was in part a result of the way the Dutch colonial state apparatus had been fractured during the Japanese Occupation. From 1942 to 1945 Java was ruled by the 16th Army, Sumatra by the 25th Army, while the eastern islands fell under the control of the Japanese navy. Ibid, p 100.
117. RJ McMahon, Colonialism and Cold War: The United States and the Struggle for Indonesian Independence 1945-1949, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1981.
118. Anderson, 'Old state, new society', pp 100-103.
119. Robison, Indonesia, 1986, pp 42-44, 57; and C Dixon, South East Asia in the World-Economy: A Regional Geography, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991, pp 190-191.
120. Robison, Indonesia, 1986, pp 42-44, 57; and C Dixon, South East Asia in the World-Economy: A Regional Geography, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991, pp 190-191.
121. R Robison, 'Structures of power and the industrialization process in Southeast Asia', Journal of Contemporary Asia, Vol 19, No 4, 1989, pp 383-384.
122. Dixon, South East Asia in the World-Economy, pp 191-192.
123. Kolko, Confronting the Third World, pp 173-185. See also R Cribb (ed), The Indonesian Killings 1965-1966: Studies from Java and Bali, Clayton: Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1990; H Fein, 'Revolutionary and antirevolutionary genocides: a comparison of state murders in democratic Kampuchea, 1975 to 1979, and in Indonesia, 1965 to 1966', Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol 35, No 4, 1993; and L Kuper, Genocide: Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981, pp 150-154.
124. Kolko, Confronting the Third World, pp 173-185. See also R Cribb (ed), The Indonesian Killings 1965-1966: Studies from Java and Bali, Clayton: Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1990; H Fein, 'Revolutionary and antirevolutionary genocides: a comparison of state murders in democratic Kampuchea, 1975 to 1979, and in Indonesia, 1965 to 1966', Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol 35, No 4, 1993; and L Kuper, Genocide: Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981, pp 150-154.
125. Kolko, Confronting the Third World, pp 173-185. See also R Cribb (ed), The Indonesian Killings 1965-1966: Studies from Java and Bali, Clayton: Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1990; H Fein, 'Revolutionary and antirevolutionary genocides: a comparison of state murders in democratic Kampuchea, 1975 to 1979, and in Indonesia, 1965 to 1966', Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol 35, No 4, 1993; and L Kuper, Genocide: Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981, pp 150-154.
126. Kolko, Confronting the Third World, pp 173-185. See also R Cribb (ed), The Indonesian Killings 1965-1966: Studies from Java and Bali, Clayton: Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1990; H Fein, 'Revolutionary and antirevolutionary genocides: a comparison of state murders in democratic Kampuchea, 1975 to 1979, and in Indonesia, 1965 to 1966', Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol 35, No 4, 1993; and L Kuper, Genocide: Its Political Use in the Twentieth Century, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981, pp 150-154.
127. B Magenda, 'Ethnicity and state-building in Indonesia: the cultural base of the New Order', in R Guidieri, F Pellizzi & SJTambiah (eds), Ethnicities and Nations: Processes of Interethnic Relations in Latin America, Southeast Asia and the Pacific, Austin: University of Texas Press, 1988, pp 350-353. Bourchier, 'Lineages of organicist political thought in Indonesia, pp 111-141.
128. B Magenda, 'Ethnicity and state-building in Indonesia: the cultural base of the New Order', in R Guidieri, F Pellizzi & SJTambiah (eds), Ethnicities and Nations: Processes of Interethnic Relations in Latin America, Southeast Asia and the Pacific, Austin: University of Texas Press, 1988, pp 350-353. Bourchier, 'Lineages of organicist political thought in Indonesia, pp 111-141.
129. Magenda, 'Ethnicity and state-building in Indonesia', pp. 354-355.
130. A Heryanto, 'Indonesian middle class opposition in the 1990s', in G Rodan (ed), Political Opposition in Industrialising Asia, London: Routledge, 1996, pp 242, 259-260.
131. J McBeth, 'Indonesia: ghosts of the past', Far Eastern Economic Review, 15 February 1996, p 23.
132. Anderson, Old state, new society', pp 109-110, 116-117, 119-120.
133. Magenda, 'Ethnicity and state-building in Indonesia', pp 352-353; and Bourchier, 'Lineages of organicist political thought in Indonesia', pp 152-157, 161-162.
134. Magenda, 'Ethnicity and state-building in Indonesia', pp 352-353; and Bourchier, 'Lineages of organicist political thought in Indonesia', pp 152-157, 161-162.
135. R Tasker, 'The last bastion', Far Eastern Economic Review, 18 January 1996, p 21. This theme was confirmed in the Review's coverage of Indonesia, in which it was argued that the Indonesian military remained 'firmly in the mainstream of political life'. It quoted a political scientist from the National Defense Institute in Indonesia who argued that greater democracy and a diminished role for the military was still 15 to 20 years off. John McBeth, 'Unifying force', Far Eastern Economic Review, 18 January 1996, p 24.
136. R Tasker, 'The last bastion', Far Eastern Economic Review, 18 January 1996, p 21. This theme was confirmed in the Review's coverage of Indonesia, in which it was argued that the Indonesian military remained 'firmly in the mainstream of political life'. It quoted a political scientist from the National Defense Institute in Indonesia who argued that greater democracy and a diminished role for the military was still 15 to 20 years off. John McBeth, 'Unifying force', Far Eastern Economic Review, 18 January 1996, p 24.
137. J Bresnan, From Dominoes to Dynamos: The Transformation of Southeast Asia, New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1994, p 58.
138. The bloody fighting over land between Dayaks and Madurese in the Indonesian province of West Kalimantan in February 1997 provides a relatively spectacular example of the ethnic fracture lines which abound in the nation of Indonesia. J McBeth and M Cohen, 'Murder and mayhem', Far Eastern Economic Review, 20 February 1997, pp 26-27.
139. U Sundhaussen, 'Indonesia: past and present encounters with democracy', in L Diamond, J Linz & S Lipset (eds), Democracy in Developing Countries: Asia, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1989; R Robison, 'Problems of analysing the middle class as a political force in Indonesia', in R Tanter & K Young (eds), The Politics of Middle Class Indonesia, Clayton: Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1990; and R Robison, 'The middle class and the bourgeoisie in Indonesia', in R Robison & DSG Goodman (eds), The New Rich in Asia: Mobile Phones, MacDonalds and Middle-Class Revolution, London: Routledge, 1996.
140. U Sundhaussen, 'Indonesia: past and present encounters with democracy', in L Diamond, J Linz & S Lipset (eds), Democracy in Developing Countries: Asia, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1989; R Robison, 'Problems of analysing the middle class as a political force in Indonesia', in R Tanter & K Young (eds), The Politics of Middle Class Indonesia, Clayton: Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1990; and R Robison, 'The middle class and the bourgeoisie in Indonesia', in R Robison & DSG Goodman (eds), The New Rich in Asia: Mobile Phones, MacDonalds and Middle-Class Revolution, London: Routledge, 1996.
141. U Sundhaussen, 'Indonesia: past and present encounters with democracy', in L Diamond, J Linz & S Lipset (eds), Democracy in Developing Countries: Asia, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1989; R Robison, 'Problems of analysing the middle class as a political force in Indonesia', in R Tanter & K Young (eds), The Politics of Middle Class Indonesia, Clayton: Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1990; and R Robison, 'The middle class and the bourgeoisie in Indonesia', in R Robison & DSG Goodman (eds), The New Rich in Asia: Mobile Phones, MacDonalds and Middle-Class Revolution, London: Routledge, 1996.
142. The vicissitudes of Indonesian politics and the rise of new social forces in Indonesia must also be set in the global context of the end of the Cold War and the apparent acceleration of the ongoing trend towards what celebrants and critics increasingly call globalisation. The centre of gravity of the global political economy is shifting away from US-centred cold war hegemony towards reconfigured relationships between the major international powers, an increased role for international financial institutions and transnational corporations (TNCS) and the dramatic globalisation of production and trade. This has been accompanied by shifting patterns of transnational finance and important changes to the position of, but not necessarily a diminished role for, territorial-states. Other key trends in the post-cold war era which are of particular relevance are the emergence of important new 'ideological' trends world-wide and an uneven shift towards exclusive or inclusive regional economic blocs. B Stallings, 'Introduction: global change, regional response', in Stallings (ed), Global Change, Regional Response: The New International Context of Development, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995, pp 2-14; and MT Berger & DA Borer, 'Introduction - the rise of East Asia: critical visions of the Pacific century', in Berger & Borer, The Rise of East Asia.
143. The vicissitudes of Indonesian politics and the rise of new social forces in Indonesia must also be set in the global context of the end of the Cold War and the apparent acceleration of the ongoing trend towards what celebrants and critics increasingly call globalisation. The centre of gravity of the global political economy is shifting away from US-centred cold war hegemony towards reconfigured relationships between the major international powers, an increased role for international financial institutions and transnational corporations (TNCS) and the dramatic globalisation of production and trade. This has been accompanied by shifting patterns of transnational finance and important changes to the position of, but not necessarily a diminished role for, territorial-states. Other key trends in the post-cold war era which are of particular relevance are the emergence of important new 'ideological' trends world-wide and an uneven shift towards exclusive or inclusive regional economic blocs. B Stallings, 'Introduction: global change, regional response', in Stallings (ed), Global Change, Regional Response: The New International Context of Development, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995, pp 2-14; and MT Berger & DA Borer, 'Introduction - the rise of East Asia: critical visions of the Pacific century', in Berger & Borer, The Rise of East Asia.
144. J Muravchik, Exporting Democracy: Fulfilling America 's Destiny, Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute, 1991; and T Smith, America's Mission: The United States and the Worldwide Struggle for Democracy in the Twentieth Century, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994.
145. J Muravchik, Exporting Democracy: Fulfilling America 's Destiny, Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute, 1991; and T Smith, America's Mission: The United States and the Worldwide Struggle for Democracy in the Twentieth Century, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994.
146. However, Fukuyama cautioned that the liberal 'victory' was still unfinished, emphasising that it had occurred mainly 'in the realm of ideas or consciousness' and was 'as yet incomplete in the real or material world'. F Fukuyama, 'The end of history?', The National Interest, Vol 16, No 8, 1989, pp 3-4, 15. He has subsequently allowed that in Asia, for example, an East Asian-style political and economic model led by Japan may embody a major challenge to rather than a recapitulation of, the Anglo-American model of capitalist liberal democracy. F Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man, London: Hamish Hamilton, 1992, p 243.
147. However, Fukuyama cautioned that the liberal 'victory' was still unfinished, emphasising that it had occurred mainly 'in the realm of ideas or consciousness' and was 'as yet incomplete in the real or material world'. F Fukuyama, 'The end of history?', The National Interest, Vol 16, No 8, 1989, pp 3-4, 15. He has subsequently allowed that in Asia, for example, an East Asian-style political and economic model led by Japan may embody a major challenge to rather than a recapitulation of, the Anglo-American model of capitalist liberal democracy. F Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man, London: Hamish Hamilton, 1992, p 243.
148. B Beedham, 'Full democracy', The Economist, 21 December 1996, p S3.
149. MT Berger, 'The new millennium and the mirage of global modernity: the United Nations, the Commission on Global Governance and the new world disorder', Critical Arts: A Journal of Cultural Studies, Vol 10, No 2, 1996. MT Berger, 'Yellow mythologies: the East Asian miracle and post-cold war capitalism', Positions: East Asia Cultures Critique, Vol 4, No 2, 1996, revised and reprinted as MT Berger, 'The triumph of the East?: the East Asian miracle and post-cold war capitalism', in Berger & Borer, The Rise of East Asia.
150. MT Berger, 'The new millennium and the mirage of global modernity: the United Nations, the Commission on Global Governance and the new world disorder', Critical Arts: A Journal of Cultural Studies, Vol 10, No 2, 1996. MT Berger, 'Yellow mythologies: the East Asian miracle and post-cold war capitalism', Positions: East Asia Cultures Critique, Vol 4, No 2, 1996, revised and reprinted as MT Berger, 'The triumph of the East?: the East Asian miracle and post-cold war capitalism', in Berger & Borer, The Rise of East Asia.
151. MT Berger, 'The new millennium and the mirage of global modernity: the United Nations, the Commission on Global Governance and the new world disorder', Critical Arts: A Journal of Cultural Studies, Vol 10, No 2, 1996. MT Berger, 'Yellow mythologies: the East Asian miracle and post-cold war capitalism', Positions: East Asia Cultures Critique, Vol 4, No 2, 1996, revised and reprinted as MT Berger, 'The triumph of the East?: the East Asian miracle and post-cold war capitalism', in Berger & Borer, The Rise of East Asia.
152. GA O'Donnell & PC Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions and Uncertain Democracies, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991. See also GA O'Donnell, PC Schmitter & L Whitehead (eds), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, G A O'Donnell, PC Schmitter & L Whitehead (eds), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Southern Europe, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991; GA O'Donnell, PC Schmitter & L Whitehead (eds), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Latin America, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
153. GA O'Donnell & PC Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions and Uncertain Democracies, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991. See also GA O'Donnell, PC Schmitter & L Whitehead (eds), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, G A O'Donnell, PC Schmitter & L Whitehead (eds), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Southern Europe, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991; GA O'Donnell, PC Schmitter & L Whitehead (eds), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Latin America, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
154. GA O'Donnell & PC Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions and Uncertain Democracies, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991. See also GA O'Donnell, PC Schmitter & L Whitehead (eds), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, G A O'Donnell, PC Schmitter & L Whitehead (eds), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Southern Europe, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991; GA O'Donnell, PC Schmitter & L Whitehead (eds), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Latin America, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
155. GA O'Donnell & PC Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions and Uncertain Democracies, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991. See also GA O'Donnell, PC Schmitter & L Whitehead (eds), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Comparative Perspectives, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, G A O'Donnell, PC Schmitter & L Whitehead (eds), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Southern Europe, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991; GA O'Donnell, PC Schmitter & L Whitehead (eds), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Latin America, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
156. L Diamond, 'Introduction: persistence, erosion, breakdown and renewal' in Diamond, Linz & SM Lipset (eds), Democracy in Developing Countries: Asia; Diamond, 'The globalization of democracy', in R O Slater, B M Schutz & S R Dorr (eds), Global Transformations and the Third World, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1993; Diamond 'Introduction' in Diamond (ed), Political Culture and Democracy in Developing Countries, Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1993; L Diamond & M F Plattner, 'Introduction', in L Diamond & MF Plattner (eds). The Global Resurgence of Democracy, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993; and Diamond, 'The global imperative: building a democratic world order', Current History, Vol 93, No 579, 1994.
157. L Diamond, 'Introduction: persistence, erosion, breakdown and renewal' in Diamond, Linz & SM Lipset (eds), Democracy in Developing Countries: Asia; Diamond, 'The globalization of democracy', in R O Slater, B M Schutz & S R Dorr (eds), Global Transformations and the Third World, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1993; Diamond 'Introduction' in Diamond (ed), Political Culture and Democracy in Developing Countries, Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1993; L Diamond & M F Plattner, 'Introduction', in L Diamond & MF Plattner (eds). The Global Resurgence of Democracy, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993; and Diamond, 'The global imperative: building a democratic world order', Current History, Vol 93, No 579, 1994.
158. L Diamond, 'Introduction: persistence, erosion, breakdown and renewal' in Diamond, Linz & SM Lipset (eds), Democracy in Developing Countries: Asia; Diamond, 'The globalization of democracy', in R O Slater, B M Schutz & S R Dorr (eds), Global Transformations and the Third World, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1993; Diamond 'Introduction' in Diamond (ed), Political Culture and Democracy in Developing Countries, Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1993; L Diamond & M F Plattner, 'Introduction', in L Diamond & MF Plattner (eds). The Global Resurgence of Democracy, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993; and Diamond, 'The global imperative: building a democratic world order', Current History, Vol 93, No 579, 1994.
159. L Diamond, 'Introduction: persistence, erosion, breakdown and renewal' in Diamond, Linz & SM Lipset (eds), Democracy in Developing Countries: Asia; Diamond, 'The globalization of democracy', in R O Slater, B M Schutz & S R Dorr (eds), Global Transformations and the Third World, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1993; Diamond 'Introduction' in Diamond (ed), Political Culture and Democracy in Developing Countries, Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1993; L Diamond & M F Plattner, 'Introduction', in L Diamond & MF Plattner (eds). The Global Resurgence of Democracy, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993; and Diamond, 'The global imperative: building a democratic world order', Current History, Vol 93, No 579, 1994.
160. L Diamond, 'Introduction: persistence, erosion, breakdown and renewal' in Diamond, Linz & SM Lipset (eds), Democracy in Developing Countries: Asia; Diamond, 'The globalization of democracy', in R O Slater, B M Schutz & S R Dorr (eds), Global Transformations and the Third World, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1993; Diamond 'Introduction' in Diamond (ed), Political Culture and Democracy in Developing Countries, Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1993; L Diamond & M F Plattner, 'Introduction', in L Diamond & MF Plattner (eds). The Global Resurgence of Democracy, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993; and Diamond, 'The global imperative: building a democratic world order', Current History, Vol 93, No 579, 1994.
161. For a discussion of the 'transitions approach' in relation to Indonesia see H Crouch, 'Democratic prospects in Indonesia', in D Bourchier & J Legge (eds), Democracy in Indonesia 1950s and 1990s, Clayton: Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1994, pp 120-123.
162. For a discussion and critique of the 'transitions approach' in relation to Asia see G Rodan, 'Theorising political opposition in East and Southeast Asia', in Rodan, Political Opposition in Industrialising Asia, pp 1-3, 13-15. For Latin America see Berger, Under Northern Eyes, pp 198-205.
163. For a discussion and critique of the 'transitions approach' in relation to Asia see G Rodan, 'Theorising political opposition in East and Southeast Asia', in Rodan, Political Opposition in Industrialising Asia, pp 1-3, 13-15. For Latin America see Berger, Under Northern Eyes, pp 198-205.
164. L Pye, Asian Power and Politics: The Cultural Dimensions of Authority, Cambridge: Belknap Press, 1985.
165. SP Huntington, 'Will more countries become democratic?', Political Science Quarterly, Vol 99, No 2, 1984, p 218.
166. SP Huntington, 'One soul at a time: political science and political reform', American Political Science Review, Vol 82, No 1, 1988, p 9.
167. SP Huntington, 'Democracy's third wave', Journal of Democracy, Vol 2, No 2, 1991, p 33. See also The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century, Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991.
168. SP Huntington, 'Democracy's third wave', Journal of Democracy, Vol 2, No 2, 1991, p 33. See also The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century, Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991.
169. SP Huntington, 'The clash of civilizations?', Foreign Affairs, Vol 72, No 3, 1993; and S P Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996.
170. SP Huntington, 'The clash of civilizations?', Foreign Affairs, Vol 72, No 3, 1993; and S P Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996.
171. E Friedman, 'Conclusion', in Friedman (ed), The Politics of Democratization: Generalizing East Asian Experiences, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994,. pp 250-252.
172. E Friedman, 'Introduction', in Friedman (ed), The Politics of Demoralization, pp 2, 5-7; Friedman, 'Generalizing East Asian experiences', in Friedman, The Politics of Democratization, pp 25, 35-37, 44-45; and E Friedman, 'Conclusion', in Friedman, The Politics of Democratization, pp 257-258.
173. E Friedman, 'Introduction', in Friedman (ed), The Politics of Demoralization, pp 2, 5-7; Friedman, 'Generalizing East Asian experiences', in Friedman, The Politics of Democratization, pp 25, 35-37, 44-45; and E Friedman, 'Conclusion', in Friedman, The Politics of Democratization, pp 257-258.
174. E Friedman, 'Introduction', in Friedman (ed), The Politics of Demoralization, pp 2, 5-7; Friedman, 'Generalizing East Asian experiences', in Friedman, The Politics of Democratization, pp 25, 35-37, 44-45; and E Friedman, 'Conclusion', in Friedman, The Politics of Democratization, pp 257-258.
175. MT Berger, 'Southeast Asian trajectories'.
176. An example of a state and class approach to democratisation and political change with a focus on Southeast Asia is R Robison, K Hewison & G Rodan, 'Political power in industrialising capitalist societies: theoretical approaches', in Hewison, Robison & Rodan (eds), Southeast Asia in the 1990s, pp 20-24.
177. D Rueschemeyer, EH Stephens & JD Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992, pp 1-39, 309-316. See also RB Collier & D Collier, Shaping the Political Arena: Critical Junctures, The Labour Movement and Regime Dynamics in Latin America, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991; and ME Keck, The Workers Party and Democratization in Brazil, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992.
178. D Rueschemeyer, EH Stephens & JD Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992, pp 1-39, 309-316. See also RB Collier & D Collier, Shaping the Political Arena: Critical Junctures, The Labour Movement and Regime Dynamics in Latin America, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991; and ME Keck, The Workers Party and Democratization in Brazil, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992.
179. D Rueschemeyer, EH Stephens & JD Stephens, Capitalist Development and Democracy, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992, pp 1-39, 309-316. See also RB Collier & D Collier, Shaping the Political Arena: Critical Junctures, The Labour Movement and Regime Dynamics in Latin America, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991; and ME Keck, The Workers Party and Democratization in Brazil, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992.
180. D Potter, 'Democratization in Asia', in D Held (ed), Prospects for Democracy: North, South, East, West, London: Polity Press, 1993. VR Hadiz, 'The political significance of recent working class action in Indonesia', in D Bourchier (ed), Indonesia's Emerging Proletariat: Workers and Their Struggles, Clayton: Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1994; and Hadiz, 'Contradictions of corporatism: workers and the state in New Order Indonesia, unpublished PhD thesis, Perth: Asia Research Centre, Murdoch University, 1996 (a revised version is to be published, London: Routledge, 1997).
181. D Potter, 'Democratization in Asia', in D Held (ed), Prospects for Democracy: North, South, East, West, London: Polity Press, 1993. VR Hadiz, 'The political significance of recent working class action in Indonesia', in D Bourchier (ed), Indonesia's Emerging Proletariat: Workers and Their Struggles, Clayton: Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1994; and Hadiz, 'Contradictions of corporatism: workers and the state in New Order Indonesia, unpublished PhD thesis, Perth: Asia Research Centre, Murdoch University, 1996 (a revised version is to be published, London: Routledge, 1997).
182. D Potter, 'Democratization in Asia', in D Held (ed), Prospects for Democracy: North, South, East, West, London: Polity Press, 1993. VR Hadiz, 'The political significance of recent working class action in Indonesia', in D Bourchier (ed), Indonesia's Emerging Proletariat: Workers and Their Struggles, Clayton: Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, Monash University, 1994; and Hadiz, 'Contradictions of corporatism: workers and the state in New Order Indonesia, unpublished PhD thesis, Perth: Asia Research Centre, Murdoch University, 1996 (a revised version is to be published, London: Routledge, 1997).
183. Another way of making this distinction is to speak of political democracy and social democracy. In the case of the former (which is the dominant international conception of democracy) democracy is perceived to exist when the necessary institutions which allow political decisions to be taken by individuals and parties competing for the support of, and elected by, popular vote are in place. Thus regular elections and the right to compete in elections is taken to be democracy. At the other end of the spectrum is a notion of democracy that does not simply rest on political rights, but also assumes social and economic rights, related to health care, education, employment, social services, individual autonomy and greater participation. G Sørensen, Democracy and Democratization: Processes and Prospects in a Changing World, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993, pp 10-11.
184. Potter, 'Democratization in Asia', pp 356-360, 364-366, 376. See also G Ogle, South Korea: Dissent Within the Economic Miracle, London: Zed, 1990; and Bruce Cumings, 'The abortive abertura: South Korea in the light of Latin American experience', New Left Review, No 173, 1989.
185. Potter, 'Democratization in Asia', pp 356-360, 364-366, 376. See also G Ogle, South Korea: Dissent Within the Economic Miracle, London: Zed, 1990; and Bruce Cumings, 'The abortive abertura: South Korea in the light of Latin American experience', New Left Review, No 173, 1989.
186. Potter, 'Democratization in Asia', pp 356-360, 364-366, 376. See also G Ogle, South Korea: Dissent Within the Economic Miracle, London: Zed, 1990; and Bruce Cumings, 'The abortive abertura: South Korea in the light of Latin American experience', New Left Review, No 173, 1989.
187. VR Hadiz, 'Challenging state corporatism on the labour front: working class politics in the 1990s', in Bourchier & Legge, Democracy in Indonesia 1950s and 1990s, pp 201-202.
188. Rodan, 'Theorising political opposition in East and Southeast Asia', pp 6-7.
189. See Bourchier, 'Lineages of organicist political thought in Indonesia', pp 2-9.
190. The term pamong praja (which means 'guides of the realm') refers to the indigenous administrative elite which emerged as a major beneficiary and pillar of Dutch colonial rule. Prior to 1946 they were known as the pangreh pradja ('rulers of the realm'). At the centre of the pangreh pradja was the Javanese priyayi, the hereditary petty aristocracy of Java, which had been transformed into a bureaucratic elite and incorporated into the Dutch colonial state apparatus. Sutherland, The Making Of a Bureaucratic Elite; and Bourchier, 'Lineages of organicist political thought in Indonesia', pp 111-141.
191. The term pamong praja (which means 'guides of the realm') refers to the indigenous administrative elite which emerged as a major beneficiary and pillar of Dutch colonial rule. Prior to 1946 they were known as the pangreh pradja ('rulers of the realm'). At the centre of the pangreh pradja was the Javanese priyayi, the hereditary petty aristocracy of Java, which had been transformed into a bureaucratic elite and incorporated into the Dutch colonial state apparatus. Sutherland, The Making Of a Bureaucratic Elite; and Bourchier, 'Lineages of organicist political thought in Indonesia', pp 111-141.
192. C Dixon, South East Asia in the World-Economy, pp 193-195; and J Bresnan, Managing Indonesia: The Modern Political Economy, New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, p 83. See also Winters, Power in Motion, pp 47-94.
193. C Dixon, South East Asia in the World-Economy, pp 193-195; and J Bresnan, Managing Indonesia: The Modern Political Economy, New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, p 83. See also Winters, Power in Motion, pp 47-94.
194. C Dixon, South East Asia in the World-Economy, pp 193-195; and J Bresnan, Managing Indonesia: The Modern Political Economy, New York: Columbia University Press, 1993, p 83. See also Winters, Power in Motion, pp 47-94.
195. R Robison, 'Structures of power and the industrialization process in Southeast Asia', Journal of Contemporary Asia, Vol 19, No 4, 1989, pp 384-385.
196. Dixon, Southeast Asia in the World Economy, pp 195-200.
197. Robison, 'Structures of power and the industrialization process in Southeast Asia', pp. 385-387.
198. R Stubbs, 'The political economy of the Asia-Pacific region', in R Stubbs & GRD Underhill (eds), Political Economy and the Changing Global Order, London: Macmillan, 1994, p 372; and N Matsui, 'New economic patterns in East Asia direct investments and competition between the US and Japan', Journal of Asia Pacific Economy, Vol 1, No 1, 1996, pp 39-58.
199. R Stubbs, 'The political economy of the Asia-Pacific region', in R Stubbs & GRD Underhill (eds), Political Economy and the Changing Global Order, London: Macmillan, 1994, p 372; and N Matsui, 'New economic patterns in East Asia direct investments and competition between the US and Japan', Journal of Asia Pacific Economy, Vol 1, No 1, 1996, pp 39-58.
200. On the origins and rise of Pancasila see DE Ramage, Politics in Indonesia: Democracy, Islam and the Ideology of Tolerance, London: Routledge, 1995, especially pp 1-44, 184-202.
201. While organicist and integralist ideas are represented as indigenous their lineage can be traced to continental Europe and to a lesser extent Japan, combining conservative totalitarian and corporatist ideas with romantic visions of harmonious communities in pre-colonial Indonesia. Bourchier, 'Lineages of organicist political thought in Indonesia', pp 80-83, 212-215, 222-223, 234, 239-241, 255-257.
202. H Antlöv, 'Tracing the roots of the contemporary Indonesian state', in ML Heikkilä & J Seppänen (eds), Southeast Asia: Contemporary Perspectives, Helsinki: Finnish Association of East Asian Studies 1990, pp 66-67.
203. J Pemberton, On the Subject of "Java", Ithaca, NC: Cornell University Press, 1994, pp 148-235, 269-318.
204. J Pemberton, 'Recollections from "Beautiful Indonesia" (somewhere beyond the postmodern)', Public Culture, Vol 6, No 2, 1994, pp 241, 246-255.
205. H Sender, 'The Suhartos: Bambang's challenge', Far Eastern Economic Review, 5 September 1996, pp. 56-57.
206. On the economic shift in the 1980s see H Hill, 'The Economy', in Hill Indonesia's New Order pp 103-104; and Winters, Power in Motion, 1996, pp 142-191.
207. On the economic shift in the 1980s see H Hill, 'The Economy', in Hill Indonesia's New Order pp 103-104; and Winters, Power in Motion, 1996, pp 142-191.
208. A Heryanto, 'A class act', Far Eastern Economic Review, 16 June 1994, p 30; and Winters, Power in Motion, 1996, pp 184-185.
209. A Heryanto, 'A class act', Far Eastern Economic Review, 16 June 1994, p 30; and Winters, Power in Motion, 1996, pp 184-185.
210. MacIntyre, 'Power, prosperity and patrimonialism: business and government in Indonesia', in MacIntyre, Business and Government in Industrialising Asia, p 264.
211. R Robison, 'Industrialization and the economic and political development of capital: the case of Indonesia', in R McVey (ed), Southeast Asian Capitalists, Ithaca, NY: Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University, 1992, pp 65, 88. See also Winters, Power in Motion, 1996.
212. R Robison, 'Industrialization and the economic and political development of capital: the case of Indonesia', in R McVey (ed), Southeast Asian Capitalists, Ithaca, NY: Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University, 1992, pp 65, 88. See also Winters, Power in Motion, 1996.
213. A Heryanto, 'Indonesian middle class opposition in the 1990s', in Rodan, Political Opposition in Industrialising Asia, pp 241, 247, 265.
214. A Uhlin, 'Transnational democratic diffusion and Indonesian democracy discourses', Third World Quarterly, Vol 14, No 3, 1993; Chua B H, 'Looking for democratization in post-Soeharto Indonesia', Contemporary Southeast Asia, Vol 15, No 2, 1993, pp 144-145, 148-157; and E Aspinall, 'The broadening base of political opposition in Indonesia', in Rodan, Political Opposition in Industrialising Asia, pp 217-219, 228.
215. A Uhlin, 'Transnational democratic diffusion and Indonesian democracy discourses', Third World Quarterly, Vol 14, No 3, 1993; Chua B H, 'Looking for democratization in post-Soeharto Indonesia', Contemporary Southeast Asia, Vol 15, No 2, 1993, pp 144-145, 148-157; and E Aspinall, 'The broadening base of political opposition in Indonesia', in Rodan, Political Opposition in Industrialising Asia, pp 217-219, 228.
216. A Uhlin, 'Transnational democratic diffusion and Indonesian democracy discourses', Third World Quarterly, Vol 14, No 3, 1993; Chua B H, 'Looking for democratization in post-Soeharto Indonesia', Contemporary Southeast Asia, Vol 15, No 2, 1993, pp 144-145, 148-157; and E Aspinall, 'The broadening base of political opposition in Indonesia', in Rodan, Political Opposition in Industrialising Asia, pp 217-219, 228.
217. M Vatikiotis, Indonesian Politics Under Suharto: Order, Development and Pressure for Change, London: Routledge, 1994; pp 114-115.
218. S Azman, 'Indonesia: civil power', Far Eastern Economic Review, 1 April 1993, p 16. Liberal technocrats were also seen to have been downgraded relative to the economic nationalists led by Bachruddin Habibie, Suharto's minister for research and technology and a close adviser. H Sender, 'New boys' challenge', Far Eastern Economic Review, 1 April 1993, pp 72-75. See also S Azman, 'New crew on deck', Far Eastern Economic Review, 22 April 1993, p 41.
219. S Azman, 'Indonesia: civil power', Far Eastern Economic Review, 1 April 1993, p 16. Liberal technocrats were also seen to have been downgraded relative to the economic nationalists led by Bachruddin Habibie, Suharto's minister for research and technology and a close adviser. H Sender, 'New boys' challenge', Far Eastern Economic Review, 1 April 1993, pp 72-75. See also S Azman, 'New crew on deck', Far Eastern Economic Review, 22 April 1993, p 41.
220. S Azman, 'Indonesia: civil power', Far Eastern Economic Review, 1 April 1993, p 16. Liberal technocrats were also seen to have been downgraded relative to the economic nationalists led by Bachruddin Habibie, Suharto's minister for research and technology and a close adviser. H Sender, 'New boys' challenge', Far Eastern Economic Review, 1 April 1993, pp 72-75. See also S Azman, 'New crew on deck', Far Eastern Economic Review, 22 April 1993, p 41.
221. Heryanto, 'Indonesian middle class opposition in the 1990s', in Rodan, Political Opposition in Industrialising Asia, 1996, pp 247, 257-258; and Aspinall, 'The broadening base of political opposition in Indonesia', p 231.
222. Heryanto, 'Indonesian middle class opposition in the 1990s', in Rodan, Political Opposition in Industrialising Asia, 1996, pp 247, 257-258; and Aspinall, 'The broadening base of political opposition in Indonesia', p 231.
223. J McBeth, 'Indonesia: power couple', Far Eastern Economic Review, 16 February 1995, pp 26-27.
224. Heryanto, 'Indonesian middle class opposition in the 1990s', pp 255-256, 258-259. On PERTAMINA see Bresnan, Managing Indonesia, pp 164-193; and Winters, Power in Motion, 1996, pp 82-91, 105-106.
225. Heryanto, 'Indonesian middle class opposition in the 1990s', pp 255-256, 258-259. On PERTAMINA see Bresnan, Managing Indonesia, pp 164-193; and Winters, Power in Motion, 1996, pp 82-91, 105-106.
226. Heryanto, 'Indonesian middle class opposition in the 1990s', pp 255-256, 258-259. On PERTAMINA see Bresnan, Managing Indonesia, pp 164-193; and Winters, Power in Motion, 1996, pp 82-91, 105-106.
227. J McBeth, 'The year of doing business', Far Eastern Economic Review, 1 September 1994, pp 70-72.
228. Heryanto, 'Indonesian middle class opposition in the 1990s', pp 245-253.
229. VR Hadiz, 'Workers and working class politics in the 1990s', in J Hardjono & C Manning (eds), Indonesia Assessment 1993, Canberra: Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, 1993, pp 186-187.
230. Heryanto, 'A Class Act', p 30.
231. O Törnquist, What's Wrong With Marxism?, pp 176-177.
232. Hadiz, 'Challenging state corporatism on the labour front', pp 191-192.
233. Suharto quoted in ibid., pp 193-194.
234. Hadiz, 'Challenging state corporatism on the labour front', p 195.
235. Törnquist, What's Wrong With Marxism?, pp, 177-182, 215.
236. Hadiz, 'Workers and working class politics in the 1990s', p 190; and Hadiz, 'Challenging state corporatism on the labour front', p 191.
237. Hadiz, 'Workers and working class politics in the 1990s', p 190; and Hadiz, 'Challenging state corporatism on the labour front', p 191.
238. R Lambert, Authoritarian State Unionism in New Order Indonesia, Perth: Asia Research Centre, Murdoch University, Working Paper no 25, October 1993, pp 4, 22.
239. Hadiz, 'Workers and working class politics in the 1990s', Indonesia Assessment 1993, 1993, pp 187-188.
240. 'Indonesia: minimum wage sought', Asian Labour Update, No 14, 1994, pp 14-15.
241. Indonesia: Medan awakes', Asian Labour Update, No 15, 1994, pp 1, 3; and 'Indonesia: crackdown in Medan', Asian Labour Update, 16, 1994, pp 20-21.
242. Indonesia: Medan awakes', Asian Labour Update, No 15, 1994, pp 1, 3; and 'Indonesia: crackdown in Medan', Asian Labour Update, 16, 1994, pp 20-21.
243. M Cohen, 'Indonesia: still hard labour', Far Eastern Economic Review, 27 October 1994, pp 20-21.
244. Hadiz, 'Workers and working class politics in the 1990s', pp 191-193; and Hadiz, 'The political significance of recent working class action in Indonesia', in Bourchier (ed), Indonesia's Emerging Proletariat, pp 68-69.
245. Hadiz, 'Workers and working class politics in the 1990s', pp 191-193; and Hadiz, 'The political significance of recent working class action in Indonesia', in Bourchier (ed), Indonesia's Emerging Proletariat, pp 68-69.
246. Lambert, Authoritarian State Unionism in New Order Indonesia, pp 22-25.
247. Interestingly, although the PRD activists concerned were regularly represented as key instigators of the events of late July 1996, their actual trial has only touched on this issue, focusing instead on their involvement in labour-related activities. M Cohen, 'Indonesia: driven by dissent', Far Eastern Economic Review, 2 January 1997, pp 14-15.
248. Lambert, Authoritarian State Unionism in New Order Indonesia, pp 22-25.
249. Anderson, 'Radicalism after communism in Thailand and Indonesia', p 14.
250. Hadiz, 'Challenging state corporatism on the labour front', pp 195-202.
251. J McBeth, 'Indonesia: social dynamite', Far Eastern Economic Review, 15 February 1996, pp 20-22; McBeth, 'Indonesia: coming together', Far Eastern Economic Review, 15 February 1996, pp 24; and VR Hadiz, 'Response to riots signals new disorder', Asiaview, Vol 6, No 3, November 1996, pp 1, 4.
252. J McBeth, 'Indonesia: social dynamite', Far Eastern Economic Review, 15 February 1996, pp 20-22; McBeth, 'Indonesia: coming together', Far Eastern Economic Review, 15 February 1996, pp 24; and VR Hadiz, 'Response to riots signals new disorder', Asiaview, Vol 6, No 3, November 1996, pp 1, 4.
253. J McBeth, 'Indonesia: social dynamite', Far Eastern Economic Review, 15 February 1996, pp 20-22; McBeth, 'Indonesia: coming together', Far Eastern Economic Review, 15 February 1996, pp 24; and VR Hadiz, 'Response to riots signals new disorder', Asiaview, Vol 6, No 3, November 1996, pp 1, 4.
254. 'Indonesia: Asia's smouldering volcano?', Far Eastern Economic Review, 15 February 1996, p 7; and J Laber, 'Smoldering Indonesia', The New York Review of Books, Vol 44, No 1, 9 January 1997, pp 40-45. See also 'After Suharto, what?', Far Eastern Economic Review, 30 January 1997.
255. 'Indonesia: Asia's smouldering volcano?', Far Eastern Economic Review, 15 February 1996, p 7; and J Laber, 'Smoldering Indonesia', The New York Review of Books, Vol 44, No 1, 9 January 1997, pp 40-45. See also 'After Suharto, what?', Far Eastern Economic Review, 30 January 1997.
256. 'Indonesia: Asia's smouldering volcano?', Far Eastern Economic Review, 15 February 1996, p 7; and J Laber, 'Smoldering Indonesia', The New York Review of Books, Vol 44, No 1, 9 January 1997, pp 40-45. See also 'After Suharto, what?', Far Eastern Economic Review, 30 January 1997.