Turning the stones over: Sixteenth-century millenarianism from the Tagus to the Ganges

Indian Economic and Social History Review

Volumn 40, Issue 2, 2003, Pages 129-161

  Subrahmanyam, Sanjay ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

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EID: 2442527871     PISSN: 00194646     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/001946460304000201     Document Type: Review

References (101)

1. Fernão Lopes de Castanheda, História do Descobrimento e Conquista da Índia pelos Portugueses, ed., M. Lopes de Almeida, 9 books in 2 vols, Oporto, 1979, Tomo I, pp. 71-72.
2. See Sanjay Subrahmanyam, 'Connected Histories: Notes towards a reconfiguration of Early Modern Eurasia', Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 31(3), 1997, pp. 735-62 (reprinted in Victor Lieberman, ed., Beyond Binary Histories: Re-imagining Eurasia to c. 1830, Ann Arbor, 1999, pp. 289-316). The argument was developed further by Serge Gruzinski, 'Les mondes mêlés de la Monarchie catholique et autres "connected histories"', Annales HSS, Vol. 56(1), 2001, pp. 85-117 (the same issue of Annales HSS also included an earlier French version of the present article).
3. See Sanjay Subrahmanyam, 'Connected Histories: Notes towards a reconfiguration of Early Modern Eurasia', Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 31(3), 1997, pp. 735-62 (reprinted in Victor Lieberman, ed., Beyond Binary Histories: Re-imagining Eurasia to c. 1830, Ann Arbor, 1999, pp. 289-316). The argument was developed further by Serge Gruzinski, 'Les mondes mêlés de la Monarchie catholique et autres "connected histories"', Annales HSS, Vol. 56(1), 2001, pp. 85-117 (the same issue of Annales HSS also included an earlier French version of the present article).
4. See Sanjay Subrahmanyam, 'Connected Histories: Notes towards a reconfiguration of Early Modern Eurasia', Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 31(3), 1997, pp. 735-62 (reprinted in Victor Lieberman, ed., Beyond Binary Histories: Re-imagining Eurasia to c. 1830, Ann Arbor, 1999, pp. 289-316). The argument was developed further by Serge Gruzinski, 'Les mondes mêlés de la Monarchie catholique et autres "connected histories"', Annales HSS, Vol. 56(1), 2001, pp. 85-117 (the same issue of Annales HSS also included an earlier French version of the present article).
5. Thus, to take but two examples of 'global' thinking, Katib Çelebi, Cihânnümâ, from the mid-seventeenth century, for which see M. Norberg, trans., Gihan Numa, Geographia orientalis, 2 vols, Londini Gothorum, 1818; and António Galvão, Tratado dos Descobrimentos (1563), eds, Visconde de Lagoa and Elaine Sanceau, 4th edn, Barcelos, 1987.
6. Thus, to take but two examples of 'global' thinking, Katib Çelebi, Cihânnümâ, from the mid-seventeenth century, for which see M. Norberg, trans., Gihan Numa, Geographia orientalis, 2 vols, Londini Gothorum, 1818; and António Galvão, Tratado dos Descobrimentos (1563), eds, Visconde de Lagoa and Elaine Sanceau, 4th edn, Barcelos, 1987.
7. Pierre Vilar, 'The age of Don Quixote' in Peter Earle, ed., Essays in European Economic History 1500-1800, Oxford, 1974, pp. 100-12.
8. See the classic work by Euclides da Cunha, Rebellion in the Backlands (Os Sertões), tr. Samuel Putnam, Chicago, 1944.
9. Norman Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millennium: Revolutionary Messianism in Medieval and Reformation Europe and its Bearing on Modern Totalitarian Movements, 2nd edn, New York, 1961, p. xiii.
10. Jonathan D. Spence, God's Chinese Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan, London, 1996, p. xx.
11. R.A. de Bulhão Pato, ed., Cartas de Afonso de Albuquerque, Vol. I, Lisbon, 1884, pp. 399-400, Afonso de Albuqerque to Duarte Galvão, s.l. n.d. (late 1513).
12. Albuquerque to Dom Manuel, 4 December 1513, in Cartas, Vol. I, p. 231.
13. Cartas, Vol. I, p. 400. 'Os mouros tem por profecia que elle [Preste João] ha de dar de comer aos alifantes e aos seus cavalos na casa de Meca, e que per meyos d'elle ha de vyr sua destroyção e nossa ajuda, e foi mui grande açoute pera elles a emtrada do Mar Roxo'.
14. Michele Membré, Mission to the Lord Sophy of Persia (1539-1542), trans. A.H. Morton, London, 1993, pp. 25-26.
15. H. Hosten, ed., 'Mongoliecae Legationis Commentarius', in Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. III, 1914, pp. 513-704; S.N. Banerjee and John S. Hoyland, trans., The Commentary of Father Monserrate S.J. on his Journey to the Court of Akbar, London, 1922, pp. 129-34.
16. H. Hosten, ed., 'Mongoliecae Legationis Commentarius', in Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. III, 1914, pp. 513-704; S.N. Banerjee and John S. Hoyland, trans., The Commentary of Father Monserrate S.J. on his Journey to the Court of Akbar, London, 1922, pp. 129-34.
17. Abbas Hamdani, 'Columbus and the Recovery of Jerusalem', Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 99(1), 1979, pp. 39-48; also John L. Phelan, The Millennial Kingdom of the Franciscans in the New World, Berkeley, 1970, and Alain Milhou, Colón y su mentalidad mesianica en el ambiente franciscanista español, Valladolid, 1983.
18. Abbas Hamdani, 'Columbus and the Recovery of Jerusalem', Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 99(1), 1979, pp. 39-48; also John L. Phelan, The Millennial Kingdom of the Franciscans in the New World, Berkeley, 1970, and Alain Milhou, Colón y su mentalidad mesianica en el ambiente franciscanista español, Valladolid, 1983.
19. Abbas Hamdani, 'Columbus and the Recovery of Jerusalem', Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 99(1), 1979, pp. 39-48; also John L. Phelan, The Millennial Kingdom of the Franciscans in the New World, Berkeley, 1970, and Alain Milhou, Colón y su mentalidad mesianica en el ambiente franciscanista español, Valladolid, 1983.
20. Thus compare Vitorino Magalhães Godinho, Le devisement du monde: De la pluralité des espaces à l'espace global de l'humanité. XVème-XVIème siècles, Lisbon, 2000, with Djelal Kadir, Columbus and the Ends of the Earth: Europe's Prophetic Rhetoric as Conquering Ideology, Berkeley, 1992.
21. Thus compare Vitorino Magalhães Godinho, Le devisement du monde: De la pluralité des espaces à l'espace global de l'humanité. XVème-XVIème siècles, Lisbon, 2000, with Djelal Kadir, Columbus and the Ends of the Earth: Europe's Prophetic Rhetoric as Conquering Ideology, Berkeley, 1992.
22. See the useful paper by Cemal Kefadar, 'Les troubles monétaires de la fin du XVIe siècle et la prise de conscience ottomane du déclin', Annales ESC, Vol. 46(2), Mars-Avril, 1991, pp. 381-400.
23. We learn that Cornell Fleischer's A Mediterranean Apocalypse, which I have been so fortunate as to consult partially in manuscript, will appear shortly.
24. See, for example, Richard L. Kagan, Lucrecia's Dreams: Politics and Prophecy in Sixteenth-Century Spain, Berkeley, 1990; and earlier Donald Weinstein, Savonarola and Florence: Prophecy and Patriotism in the Renaissance, Princeton, 1970.
25. See, for example, Richard L. Kagan, Lucrecia's Dreams: Politics and Prophecy in Sixteenth-Century Spain, Berkeley, 1990; and earlier Donald Weinstein, Savonarola and Florence: Prophecy and Patriotism in the Renaissance, Princeton, 1970.
26. These themes are dealt with in an important recent collection: Mercedes García-Arenal, ed., Mahdisme et millénarisme en Islam, Special number of the Revue des Mondes Musulmans et de la Méditerranée, Nos 91-94, 2000.
27. Cf. the excellent essay by Denis Crouzet, 'Circa 1533: Anxieties, Desires and Dreams', Journal of Early Modern History, Vol. 5(1), 2001, pp. 24-61. Useful material may also be found in Michael Wintroub, 'L'ordre du rituel et l'ordre des choses: L'entrée royale d'Henri II à Rouen', Annales HSS, Vol. 56(2), 2001, pp. 479-506.
28. Cf. the excellent essay by Denis Crouzet, 'Circa 1533: Anxieties, Desires and Dreams', Journal of Early Modern History, Vol. 5(1), 2001, pp. 24-61. Useful material may also be found in Michael Wintroub, 'L'ordre du rituel et l'ordre des choses: L'entrée royale d'Henri II à Rouen', Annales HSS, Vol. 56(2), 2001, pp. 479-506.
29. Mercedes García-Arenal, 'Sainteté et pouvoir dynastique au Maroc: La résistance de Fès aux Sa'diens', Annales ESC, Vol. 45(4), 1990, p. 1034.
30. a da Ásia, Lisbon, 1993, Vol. I, p. 192.
31. Robert Finlay, 'Prophecy and Politics in Istanbul: Charles V, Sultan Süleyman, and the Habsburg Embassy of 1533-1534', Journal of Early Modern History, Vol. 2(1), 1998, pp. 1-31. The persistent complementarities between Habsburg and Ottoman millenarian visions is also shown in a curious text printed in Mexico in 1606, the author of which notes that the destruction of the Ottomans (and the victory of the Habsburgs) is inevitable, 'since it is also what the Turks themselves say, and hold as a tradition from their ancestors; thus they say that Mahoma was a Prophet, and that he said that his law would last a thousand years of which only a few now remain'; cf. Henrico Martinez, Reportorio de los tiempos y historia natural de Nueva España, reprint, Mexico City, 1981, Tratado Cinco, Ch. 7, p. 215.
32. Robert Finlay, 'Prophecy and Politics in Istanbul: Charles V, Sultan Süleyman, and the Habsburg Embassy of 1533-1534', Journal of Early Modern History, Vol. 2(1), 1998, pp. 1-31. The persistent complementarities between Habsburg and Ottoman millenarian visions is also shown in a curious text printed in Mexico in 1606, the author of which notes that the destruction of the Ottomans (and the victory of the Habsburgs) is inevitable, 'since it is also what the Turks themselves say, and hold as a tradition from their ancestors; thus they say that Mahoma was a Prophet, and that he said that his law would last a thousand years of which only a few now remain'; cf. Henrico Martinez, Reportorio de los tiempos y historia natural de Nueva España, reprint, Mexico City, 1981, Tratado Cinco, Ch. 7, p. 215.
33. Cornell Fleischer, 'The Lawgiver as Messiah: The Making of the Imperial Image in the Reign of Süleymân', in Gilles Veinstein, ed., Soliman le Magnifique et son temps, Paris, 1992, pp. 159-77. Also the earlier, fundamental, discussion in Barbara Flemming, 'Sâhib-kirân und Mahdi: Türkische Endzeiterwartungen im ersten Jahrzehnt der Regierung Süleymâns', in Gyorgy Kara, ed., Between the Danube and the Caucasus, Budapest, 1987, pp. 43-62.
34. Cornell Fleischer, 'The Lawgiver as Messiah: The Making of the Imperial Image in the Reign of Süleymân', in Gilles Veinstein, ed., Soliman le Magnifique et son temps, Paris, 1992, pp. 159-77. Also the earlier, fundamental, discussion in Barbara Flemming, 'Sâhib-kirân und Mahdi: Türkische Endzeiterwartungen im ersten Jahrzehnt der Regierung Süleymâns', in Gyorgy Kara, ed., Between the Danube and the Caucasus, Budapest, 1987, pp. 43-62.
35. Cf. Robert Mantran, 'Règlements Fiscaux Ottomans: La Province de Bassorah', Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 10(2-3), 1967, pp. 224-76; also, the useful overview in Salih Özbaran, 'The Ottoman Turks and the Portuguese in the Persian Gulf, 1534-1581', Journal of Asian History, Vol. 6(1), 1972, pp. 56-74, based on both Portuguese and Ottoman materials. For a general overview, also see Sanjay Subrahmanyam, 'The trading world of the western Indian Ocean, 1546-1565: A political interpretation', in Artur Teodoro de Matos and Luís Filipe F. Reis Thomaz, eds, A Carreira da Índia e as Rotas dos Estreitos: Actas do VIII Seminário Internacional de História Indo-Portuguesa, Angra do Heroísmo, 1998, pp. 207-27.
36. Cf. Robert Mantran, 'Règlements Fiscaux Ottomans: La Province de Bassorah', Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 10(2-3), 1967, pp. 224-76; also, the useful overview in Salih Özbaran, 'The Ottoman Turks and the Portuguese in the Persian Gulf, 1534-1581', Journal of Asian History, Vol. 6(1), 1972, pp. 56-74, based on both Portuguese and Ottoman materials. For a general overview, also see Sanjay Subrahmanyam, 'The trading world of the western Indian Ocean, 1546-1565: A political interpretation', in Artur Teodoro de Matos and Luís Filipe F. Reis Thomaz, eds, A Carreira da Índia e as Rotas dos Estreitos: Actas do VIII Seminário Internacional de História Indo-Portuguesa, Angra do Heroísmo, 1998, pp. 207-27.
37. Cf. Robert Mantran, 'Règlements Fiscaux Ottomans: La Province de Bassorah', Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 10(2-3), 1967, pp. 224-76; also, the useful overview in Salih Özbaran, 'The Ottoman Turks and the Portuguese in the Persian Gulf, 1534-1581', Journal of Asian History, Vol. 6(1), 1972, pp. 56-74, based on both Portuguese and Ottoman materials. For a general overview, also see Sanjay Subrahmanyam, 'The trading world of the western Indian Ocean, 1546-1565: A political interpretation', in Artur Teodoro de Matos and Luís Filipe F. Reis Thomaz, eds, A Carreira da Índia e as Rotas dos Estreitos: Actas do VIII Seminário Internacional de História Indo-Portuguesa, Angra do Heroísmo, 1998, pp. 207-27.
38. For the best discussion to date of early sixteenth-century Iranian politics, see Jean Aubin, 'L'avènement des Safavides reconsideré', Moyen Orient et Océan Indien, No. 5, 1988, pp. 1-130.
39. V. Minorsky, 'The Poetry of Shâh Ismâ'il I', Bulletiin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 10(4), 1942, p. 1042a; also see Wheeler M. Thackston, 'The Diwan of Khata'i: Pictures for the Poetry of Shah Isma'il I', Asian Art, Fall 1988, pp. 37-63.
40. V. Minorsky, 'The Poetry of Shâh Ismâ'il I', Bulletiin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 10(4), 1942, p. 1042a; also see Wheeler M. Thackston, 'The Diwan of Khata'i: Pictures for the Poetry of Shah Isma'il I', Asian Art, Fall 1988, pp. 37-63.
41. Cited in Aubin, 'L'avènement des Safavides', p. 75.
42. Cited in Aubin, 'L'avènement des Safavides', p. 40. Also see, for a more general consideration of source-materials from the period, Aubin, 'Chroniques persanes et italiennes: Notes sur les sources narratives du règne de Shâh Esmâ'il I', Studia Iranica, Vol. 24 (2), 1995, pp. 247-59.
43. Cited in Aubin, 'L'avènement des Safavides', p. 40. Also see, for a more general consideration of source-materials from the period, Aubin, 'Chroniques persanes et italiennes: Notes sur les sources narratives du règne de Shâh Esmâ'il I', Studia Iranica, Vol. 24 (2), 1995, pp. 247-59.
44. Jean Aubin, 'Per viam portugalensem: Autour d'un projet diplomatique de Maximilien II', Mare Luso-Indicum, No. 4, 1980, pp. 45-88.
45. Morton, 'Introduction', in Membré, Mission to the Lord Sophy, pp. xvii-xvii.
46. This period in Iran is also closely associated by contemporary writers with another celestial sign endowed with political significance, namely the comet of 1576-77; for instance, see Shaikh Abu'l Fazl, Akbar Nâma, tr. H. Beveridge, Vol. III, reprint, New Delhi, 1989, pp. 315-18.
47. R.M. Savory, 'A Curious Episode in Safavid History', in C.E. Bosworth, ed., Iran and Islam: In Memory of the Late Vladimir Minorsky, Edinburgh, 1971, pp. 461-73.
48. My discussion here draws largely on the important work of Kathryn Babayan, The Waning of the Qizilbash: The Temporal and the Spiritual in Seventeenth-Century Iran, Princeton University, Ph.D. dissertation, 1993.
49. Writing from the Decan in these years, the Mughal poet-laureate Faizi noted that the astrologers (munajjimân) of 'Iraq had told the Shah that he was under particular danger (khatra-yi 'azîm) that year, and that a hostile force (taqâtu') had entered his star. Until it passed, he would face difficulties. Cf. A.D. Arshad, ed., Inshâ'-i Faizî, Lahore, 1973, pp. 124-25.
50. Babayan, The Waning of the Qizilbash, pp. 54-62.
51. Or. 4615; two paintings representing the swallowing of Shah Ardashir by a dragon, and the island of Nigar are reproduced in Stuart Cary Welch, Imperial Mughal Painting, London, 1978, pp. 48-51.
52. For some significant illustrations deriving from sixteenth-century Deccani fal nâma texts, see Jean-Pierre Digard, Chevaux et cavaliers arabes dans les arts d'Orient et d'Occident, Paris, 2002.
53. I have closely followed the summary in Mohammad Wahid Mirza, The Life and Works of Amir Khusrau, Delhi, 1935, pp. 200-1; but also see Peter Gaeffke, 'Alexander and the Bengali Sufis', in Alan W. Entwistle and Françoise Mallison, eds, Studies in South Asian Devotional Literature, Research Papers, 1988-1991, New Delhi/Paris, 1994, pp. 275-84, basing himself on the text in Ahmad Sharif, ed., Alaul viracita Sikandarnâma, Dhaka, 1977.
54. I have closely followed the summary in Mohammad Wahid Mirza, The Life and Works of Amir Khusrau, Delhi, 1935, pp. 200-1; but also see Peter Gaeffke, 'Alexander and the Bengali Sufis', in Alan W. Entwistle and Françoise Mallison, eds, Studies in South Asian Devotional Literature, Research Papers, 1988-1991, New Delhi/Paris, 1994, pp. 275-84, basing himself on the text in Ahmad Sharif, ed., Alaul viracita Sikandarnâma, Dhaka, 1977.
55. I have closely followed the summary in Mohammad Wahid Mirza, The Life and Works of Amir Khusrau, Delhi, 1935, pp. 200-1; but also see Peter Gaeffke, 'Alexander and the Bengali Sufis', in Alan W. Entwistle and Françoise Mallison, eds, Studies in South Asian Devotional Literature, Research Papers, 1988-1991, New Delhi/Paris, 1994, pp. 275-84, basing himself on the text in Ahmad Sharif, ed., Alaul viracita Sikandarnâma, Dhaka, 1977.
56. For an overview, see Qamaruddin, The Mahdawi Movement in India, Delhi, 1985. 'Abd al-Qadir al-Badayuni, Najât al-rashîd (completed in 999/1591), claims that the origins of the sect lie in Badakhshan, with Sayyid Muhammad Nurbakhsh, a pupil of Abu Ishaq Khitlani. He is said to have created such problems that troops were sent against him; thereafter, he fled to Iraq, and in the mountains there is said to have had 30,000 followers. Also see Derryl N. Maclean, 'The Sociology of Political Engagement: The Mahdawiyah and the State', in Richard M. Eaton, ed., India's Islamic Traditions, 711-1750, Delhi, 2003, pp. 150-66.
57. For an overview, see Qamaruddin, The Mahdawi Movement in India, Delhi, 1985. 'Abd al-Qadir al-Badayuni, Najât al-rashîd (completed in 999/1591), claims that the origins of the sect lie in Badakhshan, with Sayyid Muhammad Nurbakhsh, a pupil of Abu Ishaq Khitlani. He is said to have created such problems that troops were sent against him; thereafter, he fled to Iraq, and in the mountains there is said to have had 30,000 followers. Also see Derryl N. Maclean, 'The Sociology of Political Engagement: The Mahdawiyah and the State', in Richard M. Eaton, ed., India's Islamic Traditions, 711-1750, Delhi, 2003, pp. 150-66.
58. For an overview, see Qamaruddin, The Mahdawi Movement in India, Delhi, 1985. 'Abd al-Qadir al-Badayuni, Najât al-rashîd (completed in 999/1591), claims that the origins of the sect lie in Badakhshan, with Sayyid Muhammad Nurbakhsh, a pupil of Abu Ishaq Khitlani. He is said to have created such problems that troops were sent against him; thereafter, he fled to Iraq, and in the mountains there is said to have had 30,000 followers. Also see Derryl N. Maclean, 'The Sociology of Political Engagement: The Mahdawiyah and the State', in Richard M. Eaton, ed., India's Islamic Traditions, 711-1750, Delhi, 2003, pp. 150-66.
59. For Faizi's visit to the area, see Arshad, ed., Inshâ'-i Faizî, pp. 102-3, passim.
60. 'Abd al-Qadir Badayuni, Muntakhab al-Tawârîkh, eds Kabir-ud-Din Ahmad, Maulavi Ahmad 'Ali and W.N. Lees, Calcutta, 1864-69; reprint Osnabrück, 1983, Vol. I, pp. 319-20; G.S.A. Ranking, W.H. Lowe and Wolseley Haig, Calcutta, 1884-1925; reprint New Delhi, 1990, Vol. I, pp. 420-21.
61. 'Abd al-Qadir Badayuni, Muntakhab al-Tawârîkh, eds Kabir-ud-Din Ahmad, Maulavi Ahmad 'Ali and W.N. Lees, Calcutta, 1864-69; reprint Osnabrück, 1983, Vol. I, pp. 319-20; G.S.A. Ranking, W.H. Lowe and Wolseley Haig, Calcutta, 1884-1925; reprint New Delhi, 1990, Vol. I, pp. 420-21.
62. 'Abd al-Qadir Badayuni, Muntakhab al-Tawârîkh, eds Kabir-ud-Din Ahmad, Maulavi Ahmad 'Ali and W.N. Lees, Calcutta, 1864-69; reprint Osnabrück, 1983, Vol. I, pp. 319-20; G.S.A. Ranking, W.H. Lowe and Wolseley Haig, Calcutta, 1884-1925; reprint New Delhi, 1990, Vol. I, pp. 420-21.
63. 'Abd al-Qadir Badayuni, Muntakhab al-Tawârîkh, eds Kabir-ud-Din Ahmad, Maulavi Ahmad 'Ali and W.N. Lees, Calcutta, 1864-69; reprint Osnabrück, 1983, Vol. I, pp. 319-20; G.S.A. Ranking, W.H. Lowe and Wolseley Haig, Calcutta, 1884-1925; reprint New Delhi, 1990, Vol. I, pp. 420-21.
64. Interestingly, it appears from the memoirs of Babur and other sources that this earthquake, dated 6 July 1505, was also felt in Iran and elsewhere, and occasioned the composition of chronograms.
65. Badayuni, Muntakhab al-Tawârîkh, Vol. I, p. 415; translation, Vol. I, pp. 533-34. The chronogram yields the date 961 H.
66. Badayuni, Muntakhab al-Tawârîkh, Vol. I, p. 415; translation, Vol. I, pp. 533-34. The chronogram yields the date 961 H.
67. For elements of this interpretation, see Iqtidar Alam Khan, 'The Nobility under Akbar and the Development of His Religious Policy, 1560-1580', Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1968; also Iqtidar Alam Khan, 'Akbar's personality traits and world outlook: A critical reappraisal', Social Scientist, Vol. 20(9-10) [No. 232-33], 1992, pp. 16-30.
68. For elements of this interpretation, see Iqtidar Alam Khan, 'The Nobility under Akbar and the Development of His Religious Policy, 1560-1580', Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1968; also Iqtidar Alam Khan, 'Akbar's personality traits and world outlook: A critical reappraisal', Social Scientist, Vol. 20(9-10) [No. 232-33], 1992, pp. 16-30.
69. See Derryl N. Maclean, 'Real Men and False Men at the Court of Akbar: The Majalis of Shaykh Mustafa Gujarati', in David Gilmartin and Bruce B. Lawrence, eds, Beyond Turk and Hindu: Rethinking Religious Identities in Islamicate South Asia, Gainesville, 2000, pp. 199-213.
70. Badayuni, Muntakhab al-Tawârîkh, Vol. II, p. 313; trans. Vol. II, p. 323.
71. Badayuni, Muntakhab al-Tawârîkh, Vol. II, p. 313; trans. Vol. II, p. 323.
72. Muhammad 'Arif Qandahari, Târîkh-i Akbari, ed., Haji Mu'inu'd-Din Nadwi, Azhar 'Ali Dihlawi and Imtiyaz Ali Arshi, Rampur, 1962, pp. 5-6; tr. Tasneem Ahmad, Delhi, 1993, pp. 10-12.
73. Muhammad 'Arif Qandahari, Târîkh-i Akbari, ed., Haji Mu'inu'd-Din Nadwi, Azhar 'Ali Dihlawi and Imtiyaz Ali Arshi, Rampur, 1962, pp. 5-6; tr. Tasneem Ahmad, Delhi, 1993, pp. 10-12.
74. The Dhakhîrat-ul-Khawânîn, tr. Ziyauddin A. Desai, Delhi, 1992, Vol. I, pp. 126-27. I have emended the translation from time to time. The story is also reproduced in good measure in the later, standard, eighteenth-century Mughal biographical dictionary, the Ma'asir-ul-Umara' of Shahnawaz Khan.
75. Thus, compare the seventeenth-century account of a 'meeting' between a certain Shaikh Muhammad ibn 'Abd 'Ali al-Najafi al-Mahawili and the Imam Mahdi, in Bodleian Library, Oxford. Mss. Ouseley. No. 90, Risâlah-i Mufîd, pp. 93-98.
76. Also see Andrew Gow, 'Gog and Magog on Mappaemundi and Early Printed World Maps: Orientalizing Ethnography in the Apocalyptic Tradition', Journal of Early Modern History, Vol. 2(1), 1998, pp. 61-88.
77. Jacqueline Genot-Bismuth, 'Le Mythe de l'Orient dans l'eschatologie des juifs de l'Espagne à l'époque des conversions forcées et de l'expulsion', Annales ESC, Vol. 45(4), 1990, pp. 819-38.
78. Margarida Garcez Ventura, O Messias de Lisboa: Um estudo de mitologia política (1383-1415), Lisbon, 1992.
79. Raymond Cantel, 'Le messianisme dans la pensée portugaise du XVIe siècle à nos jours', Arquivos do Centro Cultural Português, Vol. 2, 1970, pp. 433-44.
80. Godinho, Le devisement, pp. 178-79. This older point of view is stubbornly defended by several of the authors and the editor himself in Diogo Ramada Curto, ed., O Tempo de Vasco da Gama, Lisbon, 1998, without however adding any new arguments. For a reiteration, see the rather tendentious review of Sanjay Subrahmanyam. The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama, by A.J.R. Russell-Wood, in Journal of World History, Vol. 10(2), 1999, pp. 452-57.
81. Godinho, Le devisement, pp. 178-79. This older point of view is stubbornly defended by several of the authors and the editor himself in Diogo Ramada Curto, ed., O Tempo de Vasco da Gama, Lisbon, 1998, without however adding any new arguments. For a reiteration, see the rather tendentious review of Sanjay Subrahmanyam. The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama, by A.J.R. Russell-Wood, in Journal of World History, Vol. 10(2), 1999, pp. 452-57.
82. Godinho, Le devisement, pp. 178-79. This older point of view is stubbornly defended by several of the authors and the editor himself in Diogo Ramada Curto, ed., O Tempo de Vasco da Gama, Lisbon, 1998, without however adding any new arguments. For a reiteration, see the rather tendentious review of Sanjay Subrahmanyam. The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama, by A.J.R. Russell-Wood, in Journal of World History, Vol. 10(2), 1999, pp. 452-57.
83. The best and most detailed discussion of these questions may be found in Luís Filipe F.R. Thomaz, 'L'idée impériale manueline', in Jean Aubin, ed., La Découverte, le Portugal et l'Europe, Paris, 1990, pp. 35-103; but also see Thomaz, De Ceuta a Timor, Lisbon, 1994. Attempts by some recent authors, notably those cited in notes above, to critique this interpretation, seem more motivated by nationalistic prejudices than based on any reading of the evidence. For a statement of their ideological underpinnings, see for example Maria João Martins, 'Vitorino Magalhães Godinho: Ideia de pátria substituída por cotações das bolsas', Jornal de Letras, Artes e Ideias, Vol. 18(723), 1-14 July 1998, pp. 14-16, as also the analysis in Sanjay Subrahmanyam, 'Somos el mundo: El discurso de la autarcía en la tierra de los descubrimientos', Istor, No. 8, 2002, pp. 165-81.
84. The best and most detailed discussion of these questions may be found in Luís Filipe F.R. Thomaz, 'L'idée impériale manueline', in Jean Aubin, ed., La Découverte, le Portugal et l'Europe, Paris, 1990, pp. 35-103; but also see Thomaz, De Ceuta a Timor, Lisbon, 1994. Attempts by some recent authors, notably those cited in notes above, to critique this interpretation, seem more motivated by nationalistic prejudices than based on any reading of the evidence. For a statement of their ideological underpinnings, see for example Maria João Martins, 'Vitorino Magalhães Godinho: Ideia de pátria substituída por cotações das bolsas', Jornal de Letras, Artes e Ideias, Vol. 18(723), 1-14 July 1998, pp. 14-16, as also the analysis in Sanjay Subrahmanyam, 'Somos el mundo: El discurso de la autarcía en la tierra de los descubrimientos', Istor, No. 8, 2002, pp. 165-81.
85. The best and most detailed discussion of these questions may be found in Luís Filipe F.R. Thomaz, 'L'idée impériale manueline', in Jean Aubin, ed., La Découverte, le Portugal et l'Europe, Paris, 1990, pp. 35-103; but also see Thomaz, De Ceuta a Timor, Lisbon, 1994. Attempts by some recent authors, notably those cited in notes above, to critique this interpretation, seem more motivated by nationalistic prejudices than based on any reading of the evidence. For a statement of their ideological underpinnings, see for example Maria João Martins, 'Vitorino Magalhães Godinho: Ideia de pátria substituída por cotações das bolsas', Jornal de Letras, Artes e Ideias, Vol. 18(723), 1-14 July 1998, pp. 14-16, as also the analysis in Sanjay Subrahmanyam, 'Somos el mundo: El discurso de la autarcía en la tierra de los descubrimientos', Istor, No. 8, 2002, pp. 165-81.
86. The best and most detailed discussion of these questions may be found in Luís Filipe F.R. Thomaz, 'L'idée impériale manueline', in Jean Aubin, ed., La Découverte, le Portugal et l'Europe, Paris, 1990, pp. 35-103; but also see Thomaz, De Ceuta a Timor, Lisbon, 1994. Attempts by some recent authors, notably those cited in notes above, to critique this interpretation, seem more motivated by nationalistic prejudices than based on any reading of the evidence. For a statement of their ideological underpinnings, see for example Maria João Martins, 'Vitorino Magalhães Godinho: Ideia de pátria substituída por cotações das bolsas', Jornal de Letras, Artes e Ideias, Vol. 18(723), 1-14 July 1998, pp. 14-16, as also the analysis in Sanjay Subrahmanyam, 'Somos el mundo: El discurso de la autarcía en la tierra de los descubrimientos', Istor, No. 8, 2002, pp. 165-81.
87. For further comments on this passage, see Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama, Cambridge, 1997, pp. 159-63.
88. For a detailed study, see Jean Aubin, 'Duarte Galvão', Arquivos do Centro Cultural Português, Vol. 9, 1975, pp. 43-85, reproduced with a number of other relevant texts of the same historian in Aubin, Le Latin et l'Astrolabe: Recherches sur le Portugal de la Renaissance, son Expansion en Asie et les Relations Internationales, Vol. I, Paris, 1996.
89. For a detailed study, see Jean Aubin, 'Duarte Galvão', Arquivos do Centro Cultural Português, Vol. 9, 1975, pp. 43-85, reproduced with a number of other relevant texts of the same historian in Aubin, Le Latin et l'Astrolabe: Recherches sur le Portugal de la Renaissance, son Expansion en Asie et les Relations Internationales, Vol. I, Paris, 1996.
90. This is discussed in greater detail in Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Portuguese Empire in Asia, 1500-1700: A Political and Economic History, London, 1993.
91. Cited in Aubin, Le Latin et l'Astrolabe, pp. 36-37.
92. Cf. Miriam Eliav-Feldon, 'Invented Identities: Credulity in the Age of Prophecy and Exploration', Journal of Early Modern History, Vol. 3(4), 1999, pp. 203-32.
93. Cf. Elias Lipiner, O sapateiro de Trancoso e o Alfaiate de Setúbal, Rio de Janeiro, 1993.
94. Lucette Valensi, 'Silence, Dénégation, Affabulation: Le souvenir d'une grande defaite dans la culture portugaise', Annales ESC, Vol. 46(1), Jan-Fév. 1991, pp. 3-24; also Jacqueline Hermann, No reino do Desejado: A Construção do Sebastianismo em Portugal, séculos XVI e XVII, São Paulo, 1998.
95. Lucette Valensi, 'Silence, Dénégation, Affabulation: Le souvenir d'une grande defaite dans la culture portugaise', Annales ESC, Vol. 46(1), Jan-Fév. 1991, pp. 3-24; also Jacqueline Hermann, No reino do Desejado: A Construção do Sebastianismo em Portugal, séculos XVI e XVII, São Paulo, 1998.
96. Michael Adas, Prophets of rebellion: Millenarian Protest Movements against the European Colonial Order, Chapel Hill, 1979.
97. Cf. Jack A. Goldstone, Revolution and Rebellion in the Early Modern World, Berkeley, 1991, pp. 444-50, passim.
98. Goldstone, Revolution and Rebellion, p. 448.
99. See the typically nationalist and Eurocentric reaction to these arguments by Francisco Bethencourt, 'Le millénarisme: Idéologie de l'impérialisme eurasiatique?', as well as the response by the present author, 'Ceci n'est pas un débat...', Annales HSS, Vol. 57(1), 2002, pp. 189-94, 195-201.
100. Castanheda, História, Vol. I, pp. 71-72.
101. This point was very astutely brought out by Ines Županov, and I am duly grateful to her. For a more extensive discussion, see Maurice Kriegel and Sanjay Subrahmanyam, 'The Unity of Opposites: Abraham Zacut, Vasco da Gama and the chronicler Gaspar Correia', in Anthony Disney and Emily Booth, eds, Vasco da Gama and the Linking of Europe and Asia, Delhi, 2000, pp. 48-71.