Not all stereotypic biases are created equal: Evidence for a stereotype-disconfirming bias

Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin

Volumn 30, Issue 6, 2004, Pages 706-720

  Wyer, Natalie A ^a,b  

^a VU UNIVERSITY AMSTERDAM   (Netherlands)

^b Social Psychology   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Attributional bias; Prejudice; Stereotype confirmation

Indexed keywords

ADULT; ARTICLE; FEMALE; HUMAN; HUMAN RELATION; MALE; MOTIVATION; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY;

ADULT; FEMALE; HUMANS; INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS; MALE; MOTIVATION; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; STEREOTYPING;

EID: 2442440954     PISSN: 01461672     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0146167203262850     Document Type: Article

References (71)

1. Bargh, J. A. (1997). The automaticity of everyday life. In R. S. Wyer, Jr. (Ed.), Advances in social cognition (Vol. 10, pp. 1-61). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
2. Bargh, J. A. (1999). The cognitive monster: The case against the controllability of automatic stereotype effects. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual-process theories in social psychology (pp. 361-382). New York: Guilford.
3. Blair, I. V., & Banaji, M. (1996). Automatic and controlled processes in stereotype priming. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1142-1163.
4. Blair, I. V., Ma, J. E., & Lenton, A. P. (2001). Imagining stereotypes away: The moderation of implicit stereotypes through mental imagery. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 828-841.
5. Bodenhausen, G. V., & Lichtenstein, M. (1987). Social stereotypes and information-processing strategies: The impact of task complexity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 871-880.
6. Bodenhausen, G. V., & Macrae, C. N., (1998). Stereotype activation and inhibition. In R. S. Wyer, Jr. (Ed.), Advances in social cognition (Vol. 11, pp. 1-52). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
7. Chatman, C. M., & von Hippel, W. (2001). Attributional mediation of ingroup bias. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 267-272.
8. Chun, W. Y., Spiegel, S., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2002). Assimilative behavior identification can also be resource dependent: The unimodel perspective on personal-attribution phases. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 542-555.
9. Deaux, K. (1976). Sex: A perspective on the attribution process. In H. Harvey, W. J. Ickes, & R. F. Kidd (Eds.), New directions in attribution research (Vol 1., pp. 1-26). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
10. Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5-18.
11. Devine, P. G., Monteith, M. J., Zuwerink, J. R., & Elliot, A. J. (1991). Prejudice with and without compunction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 817-830.
12. Devine, P. G., Plant, E. A., Amodio, D. M., Harmon-Jones, E., & Vance, S. L. (2002). The regulation of explicit and implicit race bias: The role of motivations to respond without prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 835-848.
13. Dunton, B. C., & Fazio, R. H. (1997). An individual difference measure of motivation to control prejudiced reactions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 316-326.
14. Fazio, R. H., Jackson, J. R., Dunton, B. C., & Williams, C. J. (1995). Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 1013-1027.
15. Franco, F. M., & Maass, A. (1996). Implicit versus explicit strategies of outgroup discrimination: The role of intentional control in biased language use and reward allocation. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 15, 335-359.
16. Galinsky, A. D., & Moskowitz, G. B. (2000). Perspective-taking: Decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility, and ingroup favoritism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 708-724.
17. Garland, H., & Price, K. H. (1977). Attitudes toward women in management and attributions for their success and failure in a managerial position. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62, 29-33.
18. Gilbert, D. T., Pelham, B. W., & Krull, D. S. (1988). On cognitive busyness: When person perceivers meet persons perceived. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 733-740.
19. Gordon, R. A., & Anderson, K. S. (1995). Perceptions of race-stereotypic and race-nonstereotypic crimes: The impact of response-time instructions on attributions and judgments. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 16, 455-470.
20. Greenberg, J., & Rosenfield, D. (1979). Whites' ethnocentrism and their attributions for the behavior of Blacks: A motivational bias. Journal of Personality, 47, 643-657.
21. Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: John Wiley.
22. Hewstone, M. (1990). The "ultimate attribution error"? A review of the literature on intergroup causal attributions. European Journal of Social Psychology, 20, 311-335.
23. Hewstone, M., & Jaspers, J. M. F. (1982). Intergroup relations and attribution processes. In H. Tajfel (Ed.), Social identity and intergroup relations (pp. 99-133). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
24. Jackson, L. A., Sullivan, L. A., & Hodge, C. N. (1993). Stereotype effects on attributions, predictions, and evaluations: No two social judgments are quite alike. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 69-84.
25. Johnson, L., Bristow, M., & Love, N. (2000). An investigation of the link between attributional judgments and stereotype-based judgments. European Journal of Social Psychology, 30, 551-568.
26. Johnston, L. (1996). Resisting change: Information-seeking and stereotype change. European Journal of Social Psychology, 26, 799-825.
27. Johnston, L., & Macrae, C. N. (1994). Changing social stereotypes: The case of the information seeker. European Journal of Social Psychology, 24, 581-592.
28. Jones, E. E., & Davis, K. E. (1965). From acts to dispositions: The attribution process in person perception. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 219-266). New York: Academic Press.
29. Kawakami, K., Dion, K. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (1998). Racial prejudice and stereotype activation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 407-416.
30. Kawakami, K., Dovidio, J. F., Moll, J., Hermsen, S., & Russin, A. (2000). Just say no (to stereotyping): Effects of training in the negation of Stereotypic associations on stereotype activation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 871-888.
31. Kunda, Z., & Sinclair, L. (1999). Motivated reasoning with stereotypes: Activation, application, and inhibition. Psychological Inquiry, 10, 12-22.
32. Locke, V., MacLeod, C., & Walker, I. (1994). Automatic and controlled activation of stereotypes: Individual differences associated with prejudice. British Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 29-46.
33. Maass, A., Milesi, A., Zabbini, S., & Stahlberg, D. (1995). Linguistic intergroup bias: Differential expectations or ingroup protection? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 116-126.
34. Maass, A., Salvi, D., Arcuri, L., & Semin, G. (1989). Language use in intergroup contexts: The linguistic intergroup bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 981-993.
35. Macrae, C. N., Bodenhausen, G. V., & Milne, A. B. (1998). Saying no to unwanted thoughts: Self-focus and the regulation of mental life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 808-817.
36. Macrae, C. N., Bodenhausen, G. V., Milne, A. B., & Ford, R. L. (1997). On regulation of recollection: The intentional forgetting of Stereotypic memories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 709-719.
37. Macrae, C. N., Bodenhausen, G. V., Milne, A. B., & Jetten, J. (1994). Out of mind but back in sight: Stereotypes on the rebound. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 808-817.
38. Macrae, C. N., Bodenhausen, G. V., Milne, A. B., & Wheeler, V. (1996). On resisting the temptation for simplification: Counter-intentional effects of stereotype suppression on social memory. Social Cognition, 14, 1-20.
39. McConahay, J. B. (1986). Modern racism, ambivalence, and the Modern Racism Scale. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (pp. 91-125). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
40. Miller, D. T., & Ross, M. (1975). Self-serving biases in the attribution of causality: Fact or fiction? Psychological Bulletin, 82, 213-225.
41. Monteith, M. J. (1993). Self-regulation of prejudiced responses: Implications for progress in prejudice reduction efforts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 469-485.
42. Monteith, M. J., Devine, P. G., & Zuwerink, J. R. (1993). Self-directed versus other-directed affect as a consequence of prejudice-related discrepancies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 198-210.
43. Monteith, M. J., Spicer, C. V., & Tooman, G. D. (1998). Consequences of stereotype suppression: Stereotypes on and not on the rebound. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 34, 355-377.
44. Moskowitz, G. B., Gollwitzer, P. M., Wasel, W., & Schaal, B. (1999). Preconscious control of stereotype activation through chronic egalitarian goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 167-184.
45. Paulhus, D. L. (1993). Bypassing the will: The automatization of affirmations. In D. M. Wegner & J. W. Pennebaker (Eds.), Handbook of mental control (pp. 573-587). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
46. Paulhus, D. L., Graf, P., & van Selst, M. (1989). Attentional load increases the positivity of self-presentation. Social Cognition, 7, 389-400.
47. Pettigrew, T. F. (1979). The ultimate attribution error: Extending Allport's cognitive analysis of prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 5, 461-476.
48. Plant, E. A., & Devine, P. G. (1998). Internal and external motivation to respond without prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 811-832.
49. Pontari, B. A., & Schlenker, B. R. (2000). The influence of cognitive load on self-presentation: Can cognitive busyness help as well as harm social performance? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 1092-1108.
50. Power, J. G., Murphy, S. T., & Coover, G. (1996). Priming prejudice: How stereotypes and counter-stereotypes influence attribution of responsibility and credibility among ingroups and outgroups. Human Communication Research, 23, 36-58.
51. Ross, L. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 10, pp. 173-220). New York: Academic Press.
52. Rudman, L. A., Ashmore, R. D., & Gary, M. L. (2001). Unlearning automatic biases: The malleability of implicit prejudice and stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 856-868.
53. Schneider, W., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search, and attention. Psychological Review, 84, 1-66.
54. Sekaquaptewa, D., Espinoza, P., Thompson, M., Vargas, P., & von Hippel, W. (2003). Stereotypic explanatory bias: Implicit stereo-typing as a predictor of discrimination. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 75-82.
55. Seta, J. J., Seta, C. E., & McElroy, T. (2003). Attributional biases in the service of stereotype maintenance: A schema-maintenance through compensation analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 151-163.
56. Sherman, J. W., Stroessner, S. J., & Azam, O. A. (in press). Prejudice, stereotyping, and individuation: Biased and non-biased encoding and integration processes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.
57. Shiffrin, R. M., & Schneider, W. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending and a general theory. Psychological Review, 84, 127-190.
58. Sinclair, L., & Kunda, Z. (1999). Reactions to a Black professional: Motivated inhibition and activation of conflicting stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 885-904.
59. Skov, R. B., & Sherman, S. J. (1986). Information-gathering processes: Diagnosticity, hypothesis-confirmatory strategies, and perceived hypothesis confirmation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 22, 93-121.
60. Sommers, S. R., & Ellsworth, P. C. (2000). Race in the courtroom: Perceptions of guilt and dispositional attributions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 1367-1379.
61. Towles-Schwen, T., & Fazio, R. H. (2003). Choosing social situations: The relation between automatically activated racial attitudes and anticipated comfort interacting with African Americans. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 170-182.
62. Trope, Y. (1986). Identification and inferential processes in dispositional attribution. Psychological Review, 93, 239-257.
63. Trope, Y., & Alfieri, T. (1997). Effortfulness and flexibility of dispositional judgment processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 344-354.
64. von Hippel, W., Sekaquaptewa, D., & Vargas, P. (1997). The linguistic intergroup bias as an implicit indicator of prejudice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33, 490-509.
65. Vonk, R., & Konst, D. (1998). Intergroup bias and correspondence bias: People engage in situational correction when it suits them. British Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 379-385.
66. Whitehead, G. I., Smith, S. H., & Eichhorn, J. A. (1982). The effect of subject's race and other's race on judgments of causality for success and failure. Journal of Personality, 50, 193-202.
67. Wigboldus, D. H. J., Dijksterhuis, A., & van Knippenberg, A. (2003). When stereotypes get in the way: Stereotypes obstruct stereotype-inconsistent trait inferences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 470-484.
68. Winter, L., & Uleman, J. S. (1984). When are social judgments made? Evidence for the spontaneousness of trait inferences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 237-252.
69. Wyer, N. A., Sherman, J. W., Stroessner, S. J. (1998). The spontaneous suppression of racial stereotypes. Social Cognition, 16, 340-352.
70. Wyer, N. A., Sherman, J. W., Stroessner, S. J. (2000). The roles of motivation and ability in controlling the consequences of stereotype suppression. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 13-25.
71. Yzerbyt, V. Y., Corneille, O., Dumont, M., & Hahn, K. (2001). The dispositional inference strikes back: Situational focus and dispositional suppression in causal attribution. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 365-376.