Globalizing social movement theory: The case of eugenics

Theory and Society

Volumn 33, Issue 5, 2004, Pages 487-527

  Barrett, Deborah ^a   Kurzman, Charles ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 24144437119     PISSN: 03042421     EISSN: 15737853     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/B:RYSO.0000045719.45687.aa     Document Type: Review

References (265)

1. Charles Tilly, "Social Movements and National Politics," in Charles Bright and Susan Harding, editors, Statemaking and Social Movements: Essays in History and Theory (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1984), 297-317.
2. Prominent volumes on this burgeoning subject include: Robin Cohen and Shirin M. Rai, editors, Global Social Movements (London: Athlone Press, 2000);
3. Donatella della Porta, Hanspeter Kriesi and Dieter Rucht, editors, Social Movements in a Globalizing World (Houndmills, England: Macmillan; New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999);
4. John A. Guidry, Michael D. Kennedy, and Mayer N. Zald, editors, Globalization and Social Movements (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000);
5. Pierre Hamel, Henri Lustiger-Thaler, Jan Nederveen Pieterse, and Sasha Roseneil, editors, Globalization and Social Movements (London: Palgrave, 2001);
6. Margaret E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998);
7. Sanjeev Khagram, James V.Riker, and Kathryn Sikkink, editors, Restructuring World Politics: Transnational Social Movements, Networks, and Norms (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002);
8. Jackie Smith, Charles Chatfield, and Ron Pagnucco, editors, Transnational Social Movements and World Politics (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1997);
9. Jackie Smith and Hank Johnston, editors, Globalization and Resistance: Transnational Dimensions of Social Movements (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002).
10. Marco Giugni, "The Other Side of the Coin: Explaining Crossnational Similarities between Social Movements," Mobilization 3 (1998): 89;
11. Doug McAdam, "'Initiator' and 'Spin-Off' Movements: Diffusion Processes in Protest Cycles," in Mark Traugott, editor, Repertoires and Cycles of Collective Action (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995), 213;
12. Francisco O. Ramirez, "Comparative Social Movements," in George M. Thomas, John W. Meyer, Francisco O. Ramirez, and John Boli, editors, Institutional Structure: Constituting State, Society, and the Individual (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1987), 290-294.
13. Gay W. Seidman, "Adjusting the Lens: What Do Globalizations, Transnationalism, and the Anti-apartheid Movement Mean for Social Movement Theory?" in Guidry, Kennedy, and Zald, editors, Globalization and Social Movements, 345.
14. Sean Chabot and Jan Willem Duyvendak, "Globalization and Transnational Diffusion Between Social Movements: Reconceptualizing the Dissemination of the Gandhian Repertoire and the 'Coming Out' Routine," Theory and Society 31 (2002): 697-740;
15. Mark N. Katz, Revolutions and Revolutionary Waves (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997);
16. Hanspeter Kriesi, Ruud Koopmans, Jan Willem Duyvendak, and Marco G. Giugni, New Social Movements in Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), 181-206;
17. Doug McAdam and Dieter Rucht, "The Cross-National Diffusion of Movement Ideas," The Annals of The American Academy of Political and Social Science 528 (1993): 56-74;
18. McAdam, "'Initiator' and 'Spin-Off' Movements";
19. David A. Snow and Robert D. Benford, "Alternative Types of Cross-National Diffusion in the Social Movement Arena," in della Porta, Kriesi and Rucht, editors, Social Movements in a Globalizing World, 23-39;
20. David Strang and Sarah Soule, "Diffusion in Organizations and Social Movements: From Hybrid Corn to Poison Pills," Annual Review of Sociology 24 (1998): 265-290.
21. Hanspeter Kriesi, "The Transformation of the National Space in a Globalizing World," in Pedro Ibarra, editor, Social Movements and Democracy (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 195-209;
22. Gregory M. Maney, "International Sources of Domestic Protest: Creating Theories and Assessing Evidence," Mobilization 6 (2001): 83-98;
23. Doug McAdam, "On the International Origins of Domestic Political Opportunities," in Anne N. Costain and Andrew S. MacFarland, editors, Social Movements and American Political Institutions (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998), 251-267.
24. Giugni, "The Other Side of the Coin," 103.
25. Sidney Tarrow, "Transnational Politics: Contention and Institutions in International Politics," Annual Review of Political Science 4 (2001): 15.
26. Our discussion focuses on the national and global levels, but similar arguments may apply to sub-national and regional levels.
27. Robert D. Benford and David A. Snow, "Framing Processes and Social Movements: An Overview and Assessment," Annual Review of Sociology 26 (2000): 611-639.
28. For example, Martha Finnemore, "International Organizations as Teachers of Norms: UNESCO and Science Policy," International Organization 47 (1993): 565-597;
29. Martha Finnemore, National Interests in International Society (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996);
30. Peter M. Haas, "Epistemic Communities and International Policy Coordination," International Organization 46 (1992): 1-35;
31. Nadelmann, "Global Prohibition Regimes";
32. Janice Thomson, "State Practices, International Norms, and the Decline of Mercenarism," International Studies Quarterly 34 (1990): 23-47.
33. Mike Featherstone, editor, Global Culture: Nationalism, Globalization and Modernity (London: Sage, 1990);
34. Ulf Hannerz, "Notes on the Global Ecumene," Public Culture 1 (1989): 66-75;
35. Ulf Hannerz, Cultural Complexity: Studies in the Social Organization of Meaning(New York: Columbia University Press, 1992), 217-267;
36. Roland Robertson, Globalization (London: Sage, 1992).
37. Deborah A. Barrett, "Reproducing Persons as a Global Concern: The Making of an Institution," Ph.D. Dissertation (Department of Sociology, Stanford University, 1995);
38. Nitza Berkovitch, From Motherhood to Citizenship: Women's Rights and International Organizations (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999);
39. John Boli and George M. Thomas, "World Culture in the World Polity: A Century of International Non-Governmental Organization," American Sociological Review 62 (1997): 171-190;
40. John Boli and George M. Thomas, editors, Constructing World Culture: International Nongovernmental Organizations Since 1875 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999);
41. Margaret E. Keck and Kathryn Sikkink, "Historical Precursors to Modern Transnational Social Movements and Networks," in Guidry, Kennedy, and Zald, editors, Globalization and Social Movements, 35-53
42. and in Keck and Sikkink, Activists Beyond Borders, 39-78;
43. Marc Ventresca, "When States Count: Institutional and Political Dynamics in Modern Census Establishment, 1800-1993," Ph.D. Dissertation (Department of Sociology, Stanford University, 1995).
44. For a variety of perspectives, see Giovanni Arrighi, Terence K. Hopkins and Immanuel Wallerstein, Antisystemic Movements (London: Verso, 1989);
45. Philip G. Cerny, "Globalization and the Changing Logic of Collective Action," International Organization 49 (1995): 595-625;
46. Barry K. Gills, editor, Globalization and the Politics of Resistance (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000);
47. J. Craig Jenkins and Kurt Schock, "Global Structures and Political Processes in the Study of Domestic Political Conflict," Annual Review of Sociology 18 (1992): 161-185;
48. Peter Waterman, Globalization, Social Movements, and the New Internationalisms (London: Mansell, 1998).
49. Another bridge might build on the cross-national statistical finding that economic development is positively correlated with violent rebellion, controlling for repression and other factors. See Terry Boswell and William J. Dixon, "Marx's Theory of Rebellion: A Cross-National Analysis of Class Exploitation, Economic Development, and Violent Revolt," American Sociological Review 58 (1993): 681-702.
50. Doug McAdam and Ronnelle Paulsen, "Specifying the Relationship Between Social Ties and Activism," American Journal of Sociology 99 (1993): 640-667.
51. Tarrow, Power in Movement, 2nd edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 188-189;
52. Tarrow, "Transnational Politics," 11.
53. Doug McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 2nd edition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999);
54. Doug McAdam, Sidney Tarrow and Charles Tilly, Dynamics of Contention (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 43, 45-47, et passim;
55. Tarrow, Power in Movement.
56. On the importance of movement perceptions, as opposed to "objective" opportunity structures, see Clifford Bob, "Political Process Theory and Transnational Movements: Dialectics of Protest among Nigeria's Ogoni Minority," Social Problems 49 (2002): 395-415;
57. Charles Kurzman, "Structural Opportunities and Perceived Opportunities in Social Movement Theory: Evidence from the Iranian Revolution of 1979," American Sociological Review 61 (1996): 153-170.
58. Charles Brockett, "The Structure of Political Opportunities and Peasant Mobilization in Latin America," Comparative Politics 23 (1991): 253-274;
59. Jeff Goodwin, No Other Way Out: States and Revolutionary Movements, 1945-1991 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001);
60. Hein-Anton van der Heijden, Ruud Koopmans and Marco G. Giugni, "The West European Environmental Movement," in Matthias Finger, editor, Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, supp. 2 (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1992), 1-40;
61. Christian Joppke, Mobilizing Against Nuclear Energy: A Comparison of Germany and the United States (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993);
62. Mary Fainsod Katzenstein and Carol McClurg Mueller, editors, The Women's Movements of the United States and Western Europe: Consciousness, Political Opportunity, and Public Policy (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987);
63. Herbert Kitschelt, "Political Opportunity Structures and Political Protest: Anti-Nuclear Movements in Four Democracies," British Journal of Political Science 16 (1986): 57-85;
64. Hanspeter Kriesi, "The Political Opportunity Structure of New Social Movements," in J. Craig Jenkins and Bert Klandermans, editors, The Politics of Social Protest (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), 167-198;
65. Hanspeter Kriesi, Ruud Koopmans, Jan Willem Duyvendak, and Marco G. Giugni, "New Social Movements and Political Opportunities in Western Europe," European Journal of Political Research 22 (1992): 219-244;
66. Dieter Rucht, "The Impact of National Context on Social Movement Structures: A Cross-Movement and Cross-National Comparison," in Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald, editors, Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 185-204;
67. Kurt Schock, "A Conjunctural Model of Political Conflict: The Impact of Political Opportunities on the Relationship Between Economic Inequality and Violent Political Conflict," Journal of Conflict Resolution 40 (1996): 98-133;
68. Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement, 2nd edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998);
69. Tsutomu Watanabe, "Cross-National Analysis of Social Movements: Effectiveness of the Concept of Political Opportunity Structure," Sociological Theory and Methods 15 (2000): 135-148.
70. Giugni, "The Other Side of the Coin";
71. Florence Passy, "Supranational Political Opportunities as a Channel of Globalization of Political Conflicts: The Case of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples," in della Porta, Kriesi, and Rucht, editors, Social Movements in a Globalizing World, 148-169;
72. Jackie Smith, "Transnational Political Processes and the Human Rights Movement," Research in Social Movements, Conflict and Change 18 (1995): 185-219.
73. On international regimes, see Stephen D. Krasner, editor, International Regimes (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983);
74. Ethan A. Nadelmann, "Global Prohibition Regimes: The Evolution of Norms in International Society," International Organizations 44 (1990): 479-526.
75. On world society, see John W. Meyer, "The World Polity and the Authority of the Nation-State," in Albert Bergesen, editor, Studies of the Modern World System (New York: Academic Press, 1980), 109-137;
76. John W. Meyer, John Boli, George M. Thomas and Francisco O. Ramirez, "World Society and the Nation-State," American Journal of Sociology 103 (1997): 144-81;
77. Boli and Thomas, Constructing World Culture.
78. Harold K. Jacobson, Neftworks of Interdependence: International Organizations and the Global Political System, 2nd edition (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1984), 30-58.
79. Doug McAdam, "Conceptual Origins, Current Problems, Future Directions," in Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald, editors, Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 27. It should be noted that these four dimensions have not been subjected to extensive empirical testing.
80. Ronnie D. Lipschultz, "Restructuring World Politics: The Emergence of Global Civil Society," Millennium 21 (1992): 389-420;
81. Paul Wapner, Environmental Activism and World Civic Politics (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996);
82. Craig Warkentin, Reshaping World Politics: NGOs, the Internet, and Global Civil Society (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2001).
83. For cautionary perspectives, see JohnKeane, Global Civil Society? (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003);
84. Gordon Laxer and Sandra Halperin, editors, Global Civil Society and its Limits (Houndmills, England: Palgrave, 2003).
85. Giugni, "The Other Side of the Coin," 93, 96;
86. Keck and Sikkink, Activists Beyond Borders;
87. John W. Meyer, David John Frank, Ann Hironaka, Evan Schofer and Nancy Brandon Tuma, "The Structuring of a World Environmental Regime, 1870-1990," International Organization 51 (1997): 631-632;
88. Ron Pagnucco and David Atwood, "Global Strategies for Peace and Justice," Peace Review 6 (1994): 412;
89. Thomas Risse-Kappen, "Structures of Governance and Transnational Relations: What Have We Learned?" in Thomas Risse-Kappen, editor, Bringing Transnational Relations Back In: Non-State Actors, Domestic Structures, and International Institutions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 297-300;
90. Smith, "Transnational Political Processes and the Human Rights Movement";
91. Jackie Smith, Ron Pagnucco, and Winnie Romeril, "Transnational Social Movement Organisations in the Global Political Arena," Voluntas 5 (1994): 121-154;
92. Tarrow, Power in Movement, 181.
93. On the European Union as an emerging site of political opportunity, see Doug Imig and Sidney Tarrow, editors, Contentious Europeans: Protest and Politics in an Emerging Polity (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2001);
94. Gary Marks and Doug McAdam, "Social Movements and Changing Structures of Political Opportunity in the European Community," West European Politics 19 (1996): 249-278.
95. On the theme of cost-benefit calculations, see Cerny, "Globalization and the Changing Logic of Collective Action."
96. MayerN. Zald, "Ideologically Structured Action: An Enlarged Agenda for Social Movement Research," Mobilization 5 (2000): 10.
97. Beth Schaefer Caniglia, "Elite Alliances and Transnational Environmental Movement Organizations," in Smith and Johnston, editors, Globalization and Resistance, 153-172;
98. Jackie Smith, "Global Civil Society? Transnational Social Movement Organizations and Social Capital," American Behavioral Scientist 42 (1998): 93-107.
99. Michael Wallace and J. David Singer, "Intergovernmental Organization in the Global System, 1815-1964," International Organization 24 (1970): 239-287.
100. Boli and Thomas, "World Culture in the World Polity."
101. International eugenics organizations are included in the INGO count, but their numbers are so low that they do not meaningfully conflate the independent and dependent variables. We thank John Boli and George Thomas for sharing their INGO dataset.
102. Hank Johnston, "A Methodology for Frame Analysis: From Discourse to Cognitive Schema." in Hank Johnston and Bert Klandermans, editors, Social Movements and Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), 219. Johnston prefers "micro-discourse analysis" involving close reading of individual texts, but at the level of global culture we have difficulty identifying a single text that would warrant such attention. We use texts, rather, as exemplary illustrations of the themes that other researchers have identified as crucial in each historical period under study.
103. Robert D. Benford, "An Insider's Critique of the Social Movement Framing Perspective," Sociological Inquiry 67 (1997): 415-418.
104. John W. Meyer, "Rationalized Environment," in W. Richard Scott, John W. Meyer, et al., editors, Institutional Environments and Organizations (London: Sage, 1994), 38-39;
105. Robertson, Globalization, 25, 58.
106. John Boli, "Human Rights or State Expansion: Cross-National Definitions of Constitutional Rights, 1870-1970," in Thomas, Meyer, Ramirez, and Boli, editors, Institutional Structure, 133-149;
107. Hedley Bull, "The Emergence of a Universal International Society," in Hedley Bull and Adam Watson, editors, The Expansion of International Society (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), 117-126;
108. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (New York: Vintage, 1979);
109. Anthony Giddens, The Nation-State and Violence (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987);
110. Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes: A History of the World, 1914-1991 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1994);
111. Michael Mann, The Sources of Social Power, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993);
112. Meyer, "The World Polity and the Authority of the Nation-State";
113. John W. Meyer, "Rationalized Environment";
114. George M. Thomas and John W. Meyer, "The Expansion of the State," Annual Review of Sociology 10 (1984): 461-482;
115. Robertson, Globalization.
116. Hugh Tinker, Race, Conflict, and the International Order (London: Macmillan, 1977);
117. Gerrit W. Gong, The Standard of "Civilization " in International Society (Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1984);
118. R. J. Vincent, "Racial Equality," in Bull and Watson, editors, The Expansion of International Society, 239-54;
119. Boli, "Human Rights or State Expansion";
120. Paul Gordon Lauren, Power and Prejudice: The Politics and Diplomacy of Racial Discrimination (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1996).
121. Among dozens of works, see especially Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985);
122. Nancy Leys Stepan, The Hour of Eugenics: Race, Gender, and Nation in Latin America (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991);
123. Richard A. Soloway, Demography and Degeneration: Eugenics and the Declining Birthrate in Twentieth-Century Britain (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995);
124. Stefan Kühl, Die Internationale der Rassisten: Aufstieg und Niedergang der internationalen Bewegung für Eugenik und Rassenhygiene im 20. Jahrhundert (Frankfurt, Germany: Campus Verlag, 1997).
125. The quotation marks indicate the authors' opinion that the eugenic concept of "fitness" is empirically meaningless and morally reprehensible. See also Elof Axel Carlson, The Unfit: A History of a Bad Idea (Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 2001).
126. Francis Galton, Inquiries into the Human Faculty (London: Macmillan, 1883), 24-25.
127. John D. McCarthy and Mark Wolfson, "Consensus Movements, Conflict Movements, and the Cooptation of Civic and State Infrastructures," in Aldon D. Morris and Carol McClurg Mueller, editors, Frontiers in Social Movement Theory (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992).
128. Indeed, some scholars might claim that eugenics activism is not a social movement at all, since it does not involve mass mobilization, street demonstrations, or other "contentious" activities; we believe that such a definition is overly restrictive in that it rules out not only "consensus movements" but also hearts-and-minds campaigns and various confrontation-avoiding repertoires of collective action. We note that an influential recent contribution in social movement theory defines "contention" in terms of public claim-making, not in terms of conflict or mass mobilization. See McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly, Dynamics of Contention, 7.
129. On professionals and social movements, see John D. McCarthy and Mayer N. Zald, "The Trend of Social Movements in America: Professionalization and Resource Mobilization," in Mayer N. Zald and John D. McCarthy, editors, Social Movements in an Organizational Society (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1987), 337-391;
130. Jack L. Walker, Jr., Mobilizing Interest Groups in America: Patrons, Professions, and Social Movements (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1991).
131. Mark B. Adams, "Toward a Comparative History of Eugenics," in Mark B. Adams, editor, The Wellborn Science: Eugenics in Germany, France, Brazil, and Russia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 217-231.
132. Kühl, Die Internationale der Rassisten;
133. Paul Weindling, "International Eugenics," Scandinavian Journal of History 24 (1999): 179-197.
134. Other comparative works include Adams, "Toward a Comparative History of Eugenics";
135. Frank Dikötter,"Race Culture: Recent Perspectives on the History of Eugenics," American Historical Review 103 (1998): 467-478;
136. Robert Nye, "The Rise and Fall of the Eugenics Empire," Historical Journal 36 (1993): 687-700;
137. Philip J. Pauly, "The Eugenics Industry: Growth or Restructuring?" Journal of the History of Biology 26 (1993): 131-145;
138. Peter Weingart, "Eugenics in Comparative Perspective," Scandinavian Journal of History 24 (1999): 163-177.
139. League of Nations, Handbook of International Organisations (Geneva: League of Nations, 1926);
140. United States Department of State, List of Official International Conferences and Meetings (Washington: Government Printing Office. 1947-1953);
141. Winifred Gregory, editor, International Congresses and Conferences, 1840-1937 (New York: The H. W. Wilson Company, 1938);
142. Union of International Associations, Annuaire des organisations internationales (Brussels: Union des associations internationales, 1948-1997);
143. Union of International Associations, Les congrès internationaux de 1681 à 1899, liste complète (Brussels: Union des associations internationales, 1960);
144. Michael S. Yesley, ELSI Bibliography: Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications of the Human Genome Project, 2nd edition (Washington: U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Research, 1993), 125-139;
145. Michael S. Yesley and Pilar N. Ossorio, ELSI Bibiography: 1994 Supplement (Washington: U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Research, 1994), 25-35.
146. For instance, Harry H. Laughlin, Eugenic Sterilization (New Haven, CT: American Eugenics Society, 1926);
147. J. H. Landman, Human Sterilization: The History of the Sexual Sterilization Movement (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1932);
148. Marie E. Kopp, "Eugenic Sterilization Laws in Europe," American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 34 (1937): 499-504;
149. Hilda von Hellmer Wullen, "Eugenics in Other Lands: A Survey of Recent Developments," The Journal of Heredity 28 (1937): 269-275.
150. Margaret Sanger, editor, Proceedings of the World Population Conference (Geneva, August 29th to September 3rd 1927) (London: Edward Arnold & Co., 1927), 359.
151. Bull, "The Emergence of a Universal International Society," 123.
152. Robertson, Globalization, 59.
153. F. S. L. Lyons, Internationalism in Europe, 1815-1914 (Leyden, Netherlands: A. W. Sythoff, 1963).
154. Wallace and Singer, "Intergovernmental Organization in the Global System, 1815-1964," International Organization 24, 250-251.
155. John Boli, Francisco Ramirez and John W. Meyer, "Explaining the Origins and Expansion of Mass Education," Comparative Education Review 29 (1985): 145-170;
156. Dorothy Porter, editor, The History of Public Health and the Modern State (Amsterdam: Editions Rodopi, 1994);
157. Ventresca, "When States Count";
158. Harrison M. Wright, The "New Imperialism": Analysis of Late Nineteenth-Century Expansion (Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, 1961).
159. International Eugenics Congress, Problems in Eugenics, Papers Communicated to the First International Eugenics Congress, held at the University of London, 24-30 July 1912, (London: Kingsway House, 1913), vol. 1.
160. International Eugenics Congress, Problems in Eugenics, vol. 2, 481.
161. Garland E. Allen, "The Eugenics Record Office at Cold Spring Harbor, 1910-1940," Osiris 2 (1986): 225-264.
162. Johannes Overbeek, History of Population Theories (Rotterdam: Rotterdam University Press, 1974);
163. Barrett, "Reproducing Persons as a Global Concern."
164. W. R. Inge, "Depopulation," Eugenics Review 5 (1913): 261.
165. G. R. Searle, Eugenics and Politics in Britain, 1900-1914 (Leiden: Noordhoff International Publishers, 1976), 38-39.
166. International Eugenics Congress, Problems in Eugenics, vol. 1, 6.
167. Max Weber, "'Objectivity' in Social Science and Social Policy" [1904], in Edward A. Shils and Henry A. Finch, editors, The Methodology of the Social Sciences (New York: The Free Press, 1949), 69.
168. C.E. Shelly, editor, Transactions of the Seventh International Congress of Hygiene and Demography, London, 10-17 August 1891, (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1892), 11.
169. Shelly, Transactions of the Seventh International Congress of Hygiene and Demography, 7.
170. Charles B. Davenport, "The Eugenics Programme and Progress in Its Achievement" [1912], in Morton Aldrich, editor, Eugenics: Twelve University Lectures (New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1914), 10.
171. Harry H. Laughlin, Report of the Committee to Study and to Report on the Best Practical Means of Cutting off the Defective Germ-Plasm in the American Population. II. The Legal, Legislative, and Administrative Aspects of Sterilization (Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Eugenics Record Office Bulletin No. 10B, 1914).
172. Edward J. Larson and Leonard J. Nelson III, "Involuntary Sexual Sterilization of Incompetents in Alabama: Past, Present, and Future," Alabama Law Review 43 (1992): 409.
173. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 99.
174. International Congress of Eugenics, Eugenics, Genetics, and the Family, and Eugenics in Race and State, Scientific Papers of the Second International Congress of Eugenics, New York, 22-28 September 1921 (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1923), vol. 2, 427-429.
175. Richard Symonds and Michael Carder, The United Nations and the Population Question, 1945-1970 (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1973), 14-15 (on birth control);
176. Institut International d'Anthropologie, Rapport (3rd Meeting, Amsterdam, 1927) (Paris: Librairie E. Nourry, 1928) (on intellectual cooperation);
177. International Labour Office, Acta Final, 2nd International Conference on Emigration and Immigration, Havana, Cuba (Havana: Molina, 1928), 13 (on migration);
178. Eugenical News 13 (1928): 73-75 (on migration).
179. International Congress of Eugenics, Eugenics, Genetics, and the Family, vol. 1, 3.
180. Overbeek, History of Population Theories, 140-154.
181. G. v. Hoffmann, "Drohende Verflachung und Einseitigkeit rassenhygienischer Bestrebungen in Deutschland," Archiv für Rassen-und Gesellschafts-Biologie 12 (1917): 344.
182. International Congress of Eugenics, Eugenics in Race and State.
183. Report of the Ninth Conference of the International Federation of Eugenic Organisations, Farnham, Dorset, 11-15 September 1930 (London: International Federation of Eugenic Organisations, 1930), 2.
184. Kühl, Die Internationale der Rassisten, 64-94.
185. However, some eugenicists distanced themselves from the movement's themes of "race and class prejudice" (Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 164), especially as they came to associate the movement with Nazism in the 1930s.
186. See Elazar Barkan, Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States Between the World Wars (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 202-209.
187. Frank Dikötter, "Eugenics in Republican China," Republican China 15 (1989): 5.
188. Nancy Leys Stepan, The Idea of Race in Science: Great Britain, 1800-1960 (Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1982), 159;
189. Elazar Barkan, "Mobilizing Scientists Against Nazi Racism, 1933-1939," in George W. Stocking, Jr., editor, Bones, Bodies, Behavior: Essays on Biological Anthropology (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988), 180-205.
190. Pius XI, On Christian Marriage (Washington: National Catholic Welfare Conference, 1931), 24.
191. A. Metraux, "UNESCO and the Racial Problem," International Social Science Bulletin 2 (1950): 386.
192. Barkan, Retreat of Scientific Racism, 328.
193. Eugenical News 22 (1937): 94.
194. Gunnar Broberg and Matthias Tydén, "Eugenics and Sweden," and Nils Roll-Hansen, "Norwegian Eugenics: Sterilization as Social Reform," in Gunnar Broberg and Nils Roll-Hansen, editors, Eugenics and the Welfare State (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1996), 135, 169-170;
195. Stefan Kühl, The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994);
196. Marvin D. Miller, Terminating the "Socially Inadequate ": The American Eugenicists and the German Race Hygienists (Commack, NY: Malamud-Rose, 1996).
197. Kopp, "Eugenic Sterilization Laws in Europe."
198. Eugenical News 18 (1933): 89;
199. Kühl, The Nazi Connection, 37-44;
200. Harry H. Laughlin, "Model Eugenical Sterilization Law" [1922], in Carl J. Bajema editor, Eugenics Then and Now (Stroudsburg, PA: Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, 1976), 138-145.
201. Hans Harmsen and Franz Lohse, editors, Bevölkerungsfragen: Bericht des Internationalen Kongresses für Bevölkerungswissenschaft, Berlin, 26 August - 1 September 1935 (Munich: J.F. Lehmanns Verlag, 1936), 602.
202. Stepan, The Hour of Eugenics, 131.
203. Stepan also notes variation within the transnational movement, as certain Latin American eugenicists were more sympathetic than their North Atlantic colleagues toward Lamarckian views, in part because the inheritance of acquired characteristics offered a more hopeful prospect for nationalities and classes whom the eugenicists often considered to be "unfit." On similar debates in East Asia and the Soviet Union, see Yuehtsen Juliette Chung, Struggle for National Survival: Eugenics in Sino-Japanese Contexts, 1896-1945 (New York: Routledge, 2002);
204. Nikolai Krementsov, Stalinist Science (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001).
205. Ross L. Jones, "The Master Potter and the Rejected Pots: Eugenic Legislation in Victoria, 1918-1939," Australian Historical Studies 30 (1999): 319-342 (on Australia);
206. Doris Byer, Rassenhygiene und Wohlfahrtspflege: Zur Enstehung eines sozialdemokratischer Machtdispositius in Österreich bis 1934 (Frankfurt, West Germany: Campus Verlag, 1988) (on Austria);
207. New York Times, May 29, 1935, 2 (on Bermuda);
208. Frank Dikötter, Imperfect Conceptions: Medical Knowledge, Birth Defects, and Eugenics in China (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 112-113 (on China);
209. Eugenics Review 29 (1937): 3-4 (on England);
210. Stepan, The Idea of Race in Science, 157 (on England);
211. William H. Schneider, "The Eugenics Movement in France, 1890-1940," in Adams, editor, The Wellborn Science, 92 (on France);
212. Eugenical News 19 (1934): 142 (on Hungary);
213. Eugenical News 23 (1938): 52 (on Japan);
214. Abraham Myerson, James B. Ayer, Tracy J. Putnam, Clyde E. Keeler, and Leo Alexander, Eugenical Sterilization (New York: Macmillan, 1936), 23 (on New Zealand);
215. Wullen, "Eugenics in Other Lands," 273 (on New Zealand);
216. Eugenical News 20 (1935): 13 (on Poland);
217. Mark B. Adams, "Eugenics in Russia, 1900-1940," in Adams, editor, The Wellborn Science, 176 (on Russia);
218. Saul Dubow, Scientific Racism in Modern South Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 149-154 (on South Africa).
219. Eugenics Review 39 (1947): 87.
220. C. P. Blacker, Eugenics: Gallon and After (London: Duckworth, 1952), 320.
221. Overbeek, History of Population Theories;
222. Barrett, "Reproducing Persons as a Global Concern."
223. Lauren, Power and Prejudice, 178-194.
224. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), The Race Concept: Results of an Inquiry (Paris: UNESCO, 1952), 6.
225. Michael Banton, International Action Against Racial Discrimination (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996).
226. Pat Shipman, The Evolution of Racism (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1994), 215.
227. John W. Meyer, "Self and Life Course," in Thomas, Meyer, Ramirez, and Boli, Institutional Structure, 260.
228. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 145, 347.
229. UNESCO, The Race Concept, 32, 34;
230. see also Robert E. Kuttner, "Introduction" and "Addendum," in Race and Modern Science (New York: Social Science Press, 1967), xiii-xxvii.
231. UNESCO, The Race Question in Modern Science (Paris: UNESCO, 1956);
232. UNESCO, Race, Science and Society (Paris: UNESCO, 1974).
233. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics, 252;
234. see also Eugenics Review 40 (1949): 211-212;
235. Kühl, Die Internationale der Rassisten, 182-190.
236. Kühl, Die Internationale der Rassisten, 228-230.
237. Frank C.J. McGurk, Race Differences - 20 Years Later (New York: International Association for the Advancement of Ethnology and Eugenics, 1978), 40.
238. I. A. Newby, Challenge to the Court: Social Scientists and the Defense of Segregation, 1954-1966, revised edition (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1969), 237-365.
239. Faith Schenk and A. S. Parkes. "The Activities of the Eugenics Society," Eugenics Review 60 (1968): 154-155.
240. Kühl, Die Internationale der Rassisten, 194.
241. Pauly, "The Eugenics Industry," 144.
242. Mary Meehan, "How Eugenics Birthed Population Control," The Human Life Review 24 (1998): 78;
243. see also Garland E. Allen, "Old Wine in New Bottles: From Eugenics to Population Control in the Work of Raymond Pearl," in Keith R. Benson, Jane Maienschein, and Ronald Rainger, editors, The Expansion of American Biology (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1991), 231-261.
244. Adele E. Clarke, Disciplining Reproduction (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998);
245. Troy Duster, Backdoor to Eugenics (New York: Routledge, 1990);
246. Diane B. Paul, Controlling Human Heredity (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1995).
247. Beryl Suitters, Be Brave and Angry: Chronicles of the International Planned Parenthood Federation (London: IPPF, 1973), 20.
248. Tage Kemp, editor, The First International Congress of Human Genetics (Copenhagen, 1-6 August 1956), Proceedings (Basel, Switzerland: S. Karger, 1956), xiii;
249. L. C. Dunn, "Cross Currents in the History of Human Genetics," American Journal of Human Genetics 14 (1962): 3;
250. Anne Kerr, Sarah Cunningham-Burley, and Amanda Amos, "Eugenics and the New Genetics in Britain: Examining Contemporary Professionals' Accounts," Science, Technology, and Human Values 23 (1998): 175-199.
251. Eliot Marshall, "The Genome Program's Conscience: A Research
252. Eugenical News 33 (1948): 21-23, 58-61, and
253. Eugenical News 34 (1949): 44-45;
254. Marjatta Hietala, "From Race Hygiene to Sterilization: The Eugenics Movement in Finland," in Broberg and Roll-Hansen, editors, Eugenics and the Welfare State, 241;
255. Matsubara Yoko, "The Enactment of Japan's Sterilization Laws in the 1940s: A Prelude to Postwar Eugenic Policy," Historia Scientiarum 8 (1998): 187-201.
256. Dikötter, Imperfect Conceptions, 172-175.
257. J. John Palen, "Fertility and Eugenics: Singapore's Population Policies," Population Research and Policy Review 5 (1986): 3-14.
258. Daniel J. Penofsky, "Sexual Sterilization," American Jurisprudence Proof of Facts 21 (1968): 297;
259. George P. Smith, Genetics, Ethics, and the Law (Gaithersburg, MD: Associated Faculty Press, Inc., 1981), 29; U.S. state, territory, and district legal codes for the year 2000.
260. Stephen Trombley, The Right to Reproduce (London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 1988), 189, 235;
261. Maclean's, 8 September, 1997, 42;
262. Reproductive Health Matters, November 1997, 156-161.
263. New York Times, August 16, 1998, 10;
264. Nature, August 20, 1998, 707;
265. Dikötter, Imperfect Conceptions, 174-175.