A disciplinary perspective on the epistemological status of risk

Risk Analysis

Volumn 25, Issue 3, 2005, Pages 567-588

  Althaus, Catherine E ^a  

^a Centre for Governance and Public Policy   (Australia)

Author keywords

Multidisciplinary risk analysis; Risk definition; Risk epistemology; Risk literature survey

Indexed keywords

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL EFFECTS; RISK MANAGEMENT; SURVEYING;

MULTIDISCIPLINARY RISK ANALYSIS; RISK DEFINITION; RISK EPISTEMOLOGY; RISK LITERATURE SURVEY;

RISK ASSESSMENT;

RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK PERCEPTION;

ARTS AND ILLUSTRATION; HISTORY; LOGIC; MATHEMATICS; PHILOSOPHY; RELIGION; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; SOCIOLOGY;

EID: 23644448225     PISSN: 02724332     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.2005.00625.x     Document Type: Review

References (480)

1. Thompson, P. B. (1986). The philosophical foundations of risk. Southern Journal of Philosophy, 24(2), 273-286.
2. Douglas, M. (1985). Risk Acceptability According to the Social Sciences. New York: Russell Sage Foundation;
3. Baldwin, R. (1997). Introduction-Risk: The legal contribution. In R. Baldwin (Ed.), Law and Uncertainty: Risks and Legal Processes. London: Kluwer Law International;
4. Furstenberg, G. M. (1990). Acting Under Uncertainty: Multidisciplinary Conceptions. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers;
5. Jasanoff, S. (1999). The songlines of risk. Environmental Values, 8(2), 135-152;
6. Krimsky, S. (1992). The role of theory in risk studies. In S. Krimsky & D. Golding (Eds.). Social Theories of Risk. Westport: Praeger;
7. Lofstedt, R. E., & Frewer, L. (1998). The Earthscan Reader in Risk and Modern Society. London: Earthscan Publications Ltd;
8. MacCrimmon, K. R., & Wehrung, D. A. (1986). Taking Risks: The Management of Uncertainty. New York: Free Press.
9. Renn, O. (1992). The social arena concept of risk debates. In S. Krimsky & D. Golding (Eds.), Social Theories of Risk (p. 55). Westport: Praeger.
10. Cited in Renn, O. (1992). Ibid. (p. 56).
11. Thompson, P. B. (1986). Ibid.
12. Thompson's definitional framework is used here for illustrative purposes to demonstrate some basic interpretations of risk in various disciplinary literatures. It is not an exhaustive account and might be complemented by the addition of concepts such as "actual" risk and/or " calculated" risk-concepts that are also utilized by authors, examples of which might include the texts by Byrd, D. M., & Cothern, C. R. (2001). Introduction to Risk Analysis: A Systematic Approach to Science-Based Decision Making. Rockville, MD: ABS Group;
13. Kammen, D. M., & Hassenzahl, D. M. (1999). Should We Risk It? Exploring Environmental, Health and Technological Problem Solving. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press;
14. Wilson, R., & Crouch, E. A. C. (2001). Risk-Benefit Analysis, 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University (Center for Risk Analysis).
15. By way of example of the many references that are available, see Charnley, G., Graham, J. D., Kennedy, R. F., & Shogren, J. (2000). 1998 Annual Meeting Plenary Session: Assessing and managing risks in a democratic society. Risk Analysis, 20(3), 301-315;
16. Graham, J. D., & Wiener, J. B. (Eds.). (1995). Risk Versus Risk: Tradeoffs in Protecting Health and the Environment. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press;
17. Hornstein, D. T. (1992). Reclaiming environmental law: A normative critique of comparative risk analysis. Columbia Law Review, 92(3), 562-633;
18. Slovic, P. (1999). Trust, emotion, sex, politics and science: Surveying the risk-assessment battlefield. Risk Analysis, 19(4), 689-701;
19. Slovic, P. (2003). Going beyond the Red Book: The sociopolitics of risk. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 9(5), 1181-1190;
20. Sunstein, C. R. (2002). Risk and Reason: Safety, Law and the Environment. New York: Cambridge University Press. Other literature related to a political science view is discussed later in the article.
21. Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1994). ProPaedia: Outline of Knowledge and Guide to the Britannica, 15th ed. (p. 32). Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica.
22. Kingston, B. (1996). Review-Mastering risk: Environment, markets and politics in Australian economic history. Australian Journal of Politics and History, 42(2), 310.
23. Hood, C., & Jones, D. K. (1996). Accident and Design: Contemporary Debates in Risk Management. London: UCL Press.
24. Wharton, F. (1992). Risk management: Basic concepts and general principles. In J. Ansell & F. Wharton (Eds.), Risk: Analysis, Assessment and Management (p. 4). Chichester: John Wiley and Sons.
25. Chambers' Twentieth Century Dictionary. (1946). Edinburgh: W&R Chambers Ltd.
26. Lupton, D. (1999). Risk (p. 5). London: Routledge.
27. Giddens, A. (1999). Runaway World: How Globalisation is Reshaping Our Lives (pp. 21-22, 35). London: Profile Books.
28. Chambers Twentieth Century Dictionary. (1946), op cit.
29. British Medical Association. (1987). Living with Risk: The British Medical Association Guide (p. 1). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
30. Bernstein, P. L. (1996). Against the Gods: The Remarkable Story of Risk. New York: John Wiley & Sons;
31. Gigerenzer, G., Swijtink, Z., Porter, T., Daston, L., Beattie, J., & Kruger, L. (1989). The Empire of Chance: How Probability Changed Science and Everyday Life. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
32. Lupton, D. (1999). Risk (p. 9). London: Routledge.
33. Lupton, D. (1999). Risk op cit. (p. 8);
34. Nugent, S. (2000). Good risk, bad risk: Reflexive modernisation and amazonia. In P. Caplan (Ed.), Risk Revisited. London: Pluto Press.
35. Wharton, F. (1992). Risk management: Basic concepts and general principles. In J. Ansell & F. Wharton (Eds.), Risk: Analysis, Assessment and Management (p. 5). Chichester: John Wiley and Sons.
36. Lupton, D. (1999). op cit. (p. 5);
37. Giddens, A. (1999). op cit.
38. Peck, G. (1993). Manly gambles: The politics of risk on the Comstock lode. Journal of Social History, 26(4), 701-723;
39. Russell, G. (2000). "Faro's Daughters": Female gamesters, politics, and the discourse of finance in 1790s Britain. Eighteenth Century Studies, 33(4), 481-504;
40. Gallant, T. W. (1989). Crisis and response: Risk-buffering behaviour in Hellenistic Greek communities. Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 19(13), 393-413;
41. Gallant, T. W. (1991). Risk and Survival in Ancient Greece. Cambridge: Polity Press.
42. White, C. (1992). Mastering Risk: Environment, Markets and Politics in Australian Economic History. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
43. Bernstein, P. L. (1996). op cit.
44. Mennis, E. A. (1997). Book review-Against the Gods: The remarkable story of risk. Business Economics, 32(1), 70-71.
45. Hacking, I. (1990). The Taming of Chance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press;
46. Hacking, I. (1991). How should we do the history of statistics? In G. Burchell, C. Gordon, & P. Miller (Eds.), The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf;
47. Gigerenzer, G., et al. (1989). op cit;
48. Kruger, L., Daston, L., & Heidelberger, M. (1987). The Probabilistic Revolution (Volumes 1 and 2). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press;
49. Stigler, S. M. (1986). The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty Before 1900. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press;
50. Porter, T. M. (1986). The Rise of Statistical Thinking 1820-1900. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press;
51. David, F. N. (1962). Games, Gods and Gambling: The Origins and History of Probability and Statistical Ideas from the Earliest Times to the Newtonian Era. London: Charles Griffin and Co. Ltd.
52. Daston, L. (1987). The domestication of risk: Mathematical probability and insurance 1650-1830. In L. Kruger, L. Daston, & M. Heidelberger (Eds.), The Probabilistic Revolution. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press (Volume 1:237-260);
53. Gigerenzer, G. et al. (1989). op cit.
54. Daston, L. (1988). Classical Probability in the Enlightenment. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
55. Trimpop, R. M. (1994). The Psychology of Risk-Taking Behaviour. Amsterdam: North Holland Elsevier Science BV.
56. Burke, J. (1991). Chances: The Probability Factors of Life. London: Virgin Books.
57. See Carnap, R. (1962). Logical Foundations of Probability, 2nd ed. London: University of Chicago Press;
58. Mellor, D. H. (1971). The Matter of Chance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
59. See Adler, I. (1963). Probability and Statistics for Everyman: How to Understand and Use the Laws of Chance. London: Dobson Books Ltd;
60. Ash, R. B. (1970). Basic Probability Theory. New York: John Wiley & Sons;
61. Bernstein, P. L. (1996). op cit.;
62. Blum, J. R., & Rosenblatt, J. I. (1972). Probability and Statistics. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Co;
63. Daston, L. (1988). op. cit;
64. DeGroot, M. H. (1986). Probability and Statistics, 2nd ed. Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co;
65. Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1994). MacroPaedia: Knowledge in Depth 15th ed. (Volume 26, pp. 135). Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica;
66. Mellor, D. H. (1971). Ibid;
67. Schaeffer, R. L., & Mendenhall, W. (1975). Introduction to Probability: Theory and Applications. California: Wadsworth Publishing Co.
68. Mendenhall, W. (1987). Introduction to Probability and Statistics. Boston: Duxbury Press.
69. Gates, S., & Humes, B. D. (1997). Games, Information and Politics: Applying Game Theoretic Models to Political Science. Michigan: University of Michigan Press;
70. Macropaedia. (1994). Ibid, 19: 641.
71. Adams, J. (1995). Risk. London: UCL Press.
72. (Ruelle, D. (1991). Chance and Chaos. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press) provides an admirable outline of basic mathematical and scientific concepts pertaining to chaos and chance.
73. Spjotvoll, E. (1987). Probability: Interpretation and Estimation. In W. T. Singleton & J. Hovden (Eds.), Risk and Decisions. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
74. DeGroot (1986). op cit. (p. 6).
75. For an example listing of scientific risk literature, refer to Covello, V. T., & Abernathy, M. (1983). Technological Risk: A Bibliography. Illinois: Vance Bibliographies; or go to website: http://www.riskworld.com (last visited Oct. 15,2003)
76. and see Adams. (1995). op cit. (pxi).
77. Cole, L. A. (1993). Element of Risk: The Politics of Radon. Washington: AAAS Press;
78. Douglas, M. (1985). op cit.;
79. Handmer, J., & Penning-Rowsell, E. (1990). Hazards and the Communication of Risk. Hants: Gower Technical;
80. Leiss, W., & Chociolko, C. (1994). Risk and Responsibility. Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press;
81. National Research Council. (1989). Improving Risk Communication. (Report of National Research Council (Committee on Risk Perception and Communication-Commission on Behavioural and Social Sciences and Education & Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and Resources)). Washington: National Academy Press;
82. Rodricks, J. V. (1992). Calculated Risks: Understanding the Toxicity and Human Health Risks of Chemicals in Our Environment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press;
83. Shubik, M. (1991). Risk, Organizations, and Society. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers;
84. Starr, C. (1969). Social benefit versus technological risk. Science, 165, 1232-1238;
85. Stern, P. C., & Fineberg, H. V. (1996). Understanding Risk: Informing Decisions in a Democratic Society. Washington: National Academy Press;
86. Waterstone, M. (1992). Risk and Society: The Interaction of Science, Technology and Public Policy. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
87. Lupton, D. (1999). op cit. (p. 18).
88. Adams, J. (1995). op cit.;
89. Bate, R. (1997). What Risk? Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann;
90. Cooper, M. G. (1985). Risk: Man-Made Hazards to Man. Oxford: Clarendon Press;
91. Covello, V. T., Lave, L. B., Moghissi, A., & Uppuluri, V. R. R. (1987). Uncertainty in Risk Assessment, Risk Management, and Decision Making. New York: Plenum Press;
92. Hauptmanns, U., & Werner, W. (1991). Engineering Risks: Evaluation and Valuation. Berlin: Springer-Verlag;
93. Lowrance, W. W. (1976). Of Acceptable Risk: Science and the Determination of Safety. California: William Kaufmann;
94. Ricci, P. F. (1985). Principles of Health Risk Assessment. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.;
95. Rowe, W. D. (1977). An Anatomy of Risk. New York: John Wiley & Sons;
96. Rowe, W. D. (1994). Understanding uncertainty. Risk Analysis, 14(5), 743-750.
97. Breyer, S. (1993). Breaking the Vicious Circle: Toward Effective Risk Regulation. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press;
98. British Medical Association. (1987). op cit.
99. Douglas, M., & Wildavsky, A. (1982). Risk and Culture: An Essay on the Selection of Technical and Environmental Dangers. Berkeley: University of California Press.
100. Jasanoff, S. (1993). Bridging the two cultures of risk analysis. Risk Analysis, 13(2), 123-129.
101. Kasperson, R. E. (1992). The Social Amplification of Risk: Progress in Developing an Integrative Framework (p. 157). Westport: Praeger.
102. Hoos, I. R. (1972). Systems Analysis in Public Policy: A Critique. Berkeley: University of California Press
103. Moore. (1983). The Business of Risk. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press;
104. Perrow, C. (1984). Normal Accidents: Living with High-Risk Technologies. New York: Basic Books;
105. Shrader-Freshette, K. (1985). Risk Analysis and Scientific Method: Methodological and Ethical Problems with Evaluating Society Hazards. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Company.
106. Golding, D. (1992). A social and programmatic history of risk research. In S. Krimsky & D. Golding (Eds.), Social Theories of Risk. Westport: Praeger;
107. Haimes, Y. Y., & Stakhiv, E. Z. (1989). Risk analysis and management of natural and man-made hazards. In Proceedings of the Third Conference Sponsored by the Engineering Foundation. New York, American Society of Civil Engineers.
108. Dietz, T. M., & Rycroft, R. W. (1987). The Risk Professionals. New York: Russell Sage Foundation;
109. Griffiths, R. F. (1981). Dealing with Risk: The Planning, Management and Acceptability or Technological Risk. Manchester: Manchester University Press;
110. Whipple, C. (1992). Inconsistent values in risk management. In S. Krimsky & D. Golding (Eds.), Social Theories of Risk. Westport: Praeger.
111. Schwing, R. C., & Albers, W. A. (1980). Societal Risk Assessment: How Safe is Safe Enough? New York: Plenum Press.
112. Referred to as the "fact-value dichotomy" by Shrader-Frechette, K. (1991). Reductionist approaches to risk. In D. Mayo & R. D. Hollander (Eds.), Acceptable Evidence: Science and Values in Risk Management. New York: Oxford University Press.
113. Stern, P. C., & Fineberg, H. V. (1996). op cit.
114. Baker, B. (1995). Risk assessment kills bills. Bioscience, 45(1), 15;
115. Krimsky, S., Bergman, K., Connell, N., Shulman, S., & Wilker, N. (1989). Controlling risk in biotech. Technology Review, 92(5), 62-70;
116. Leiss, W., & Chociolko, C. (1994). op cit.;
117. Lowrance, W. W. (1976). op cit.;
118. Thiele, L. P. (2000). Limiting risks: Environmental ethics as a policy primer. Policy Studies Journal, 28(3), 540-557;
119. Wildavsky, A. (1980). Richer is safer. Public Interest, Summer(60), 23-39;
120. Wildavsky, A. (1985). Trial Without Error: Anticipation vs Resilience as Strategies for Risk Reduction. St Leonards: Centre for Independent Studies;
121. Wildavsky, A. (1991). Public policy. In B.D. Davis (Ed.), The Genetic Revolution: Scientific Prospects and Public Perceptions. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press;
122. Wildavsky, A. (1995). But is it True? A Citizen's Guide to Environmental Health and Safety Issues. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
123. Adams, J. (1995). op cit.;
124. Cothern, R. (1996). Handbook for Environmental Risk Decision Making: Values, Perceptions, & Ethics. Florida: Lewis Publishers, CRC Press Inc;
125. Douglas, M. (1997). The depoliticization of risk. In R. Ellis & M. Thompson (Eds.), Culture Matters: Essays in Honor of Aaron Wildavsky. Boulder, CO: Westview Press;
126. Grove-White, R. (1997). Environment, risk and democracy. In M. Jacobs (Ed.), Greening the Millennium? The New Politics of the Environment. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers;
127. Hood, C., & Jones, D. K. (1996). op cit.;
128. Jasanoff, S. (1986). Risk Management and Political Culture: A Comparative Study of Science in the Policy Context. New York: Russell Sage Foundation;
129. Jasanoff, S. (1993). op cit.;
130. Mayo, D., & Hollander, R. D. (1991). Acceptable Evidence: Science and Values in Risk Management. New York: Oxford University Press;
131. Nelkin, D. (1992). Controversy: Politics of Technical Decisions. Newbury Park: Sage Publications;
132. Thompson, M., & Rayner, S. (1998). Risk and governance part I: The discourses of climate change. Government and Opposition, 33(2), 135-166.
133. Perrow, C. (1984). op cit.;
134. Funtowicz, S. O., & Ravetz, J. R. (1992). Three types of risk assessment and the emergence of post-normal science. In S. Krimsky & D. Golding (Eds.), Social Theories of Risk. Westport: Praeger;
135. Otway, H. (1992). Public wisdom, expert fallibility: Toward a contextual theory of risk. In S. Krimsky & D. Golding (Eds.), Social Theories of Risk (p. 221). Westport: Praeger.
136. Nelkin, D. (1992). op cit.
137. Jasanoff, S. (1986). op cit.;
138. Kellow, A. (1999b). Risk Assessment and Decision-Making for Genetically Modified Foods. Melbourne: Institute of Public Affairs Ltd;
139. Miller, D. (1999). Risk, science and policy: Definitional struggles, information management, the media and BSE. Social Science & Medicine, 49(9), 1239-1255;
140. Sapolsky, H. M. (1990). The politics of risk. Daedalus, 119(4), 83-96;
141. Ward Wright, J. (1987). The bureaucratic dimension to risk analysis: The ultimate uncertainty. In V. T. Covello, L. B. Lave, A. Moghissi, & V.R.R. Uppuluri (Eds.), Uncertainty in Risk Assessment, Risk Management, and Decision Making. New York: Plenum Press.
142. Shrader-Frechette, K. (1991). op cit. (p. 240).
143. Grove-White, R. (1997). op cit.;
144. Miller, D. (1999). Ibid;
145. Nelkin, D. (1992). op cit.
146. Wilson, J. D. (1997). Thresholds for carcinogens: A review of the relevant science and its implications for regulatory policy. In R. Bate (Ed.), What Risk? (p. 31). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
147. Aharoni, 1981;
148. Hardy, 1931;
149. Segerson, 1992 ;
150. Viscusi, 1992.
151. Reddy, S. G. (1996). Claims to expert knowledge and the subversion of democracy: The triumph of risk over uncertainty. Economy and Society, 25(2), 222-254.
152. For example, Daugaard, D. (1991). The Swaps Handbook. Sydney: Financial Training and Analysis Seminars Pty Ltd;
153. Mamis, J. (1991). The Nature of Risk: Stock Market Survival and the Meaning of Life. Reading, MA: Addison. Wesley Publishing Co.;
154. Moore, P., & Thomas, H. (1988). The Anatomy of Decisions, 2nd ed. London: Penguin Books;
155. Davis, K., & Harper, I. (Eds.). (1991). Risk Management in Financial Institutions. North Sydney: Allen & Unwin Australia Pty Ltd.;
156. Brealey, R., & Myers, S. (1991). Principles of Corporate Finance, 4th ed. McGraw-Hill;
157. or go to http://www.riskbooks.com/. For accounting literature on risk, refer to Dickinson (1974);
158. Mock & Vertinsky (1985).
159. For finance literature on this risk topic, refer, for example, Daugaard, D., & Valentine, T. (1995). Financial Risk Management: A Practical Approach to Derivatives. Pymble, NSW: Harper Educational Publishers;
160. Sheedy, E., & McCracken, S. (1997). Derivatives: The Risks that Remain. St. Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin.
161. Trenton, R. W. (1968). Basic Economics (pp. 154-169). New York: Appleton Century Crofts Educational Division, Meredith Corporation.
162. Knight, F. (1921). Risk, Uncertainty and Profit. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company;
163. Reddy, S. J. (1996). op cit.
164. Knight, F. (1921). Ibid. (p. 233)
165. For an elaboration and critique of the entrepreneurial formulation of risk, refer to Wanna, J., Forster, J., & Graham, P. (1996). Entrepreneurial Management in the Public Sector. South Melbourne: MacMillan Education Australia Pty Ltd.
166. Bernstein, P. L. (1996). op cit. (pp. 223-230).
167. Arrow, K. (1974). Essays in the Theory of Risk-Bearing, 2nd ed. Amersterdam: North Holland Publishing Company.
168. Bernstein, P. L. (1996). op cit. (p. 206).
169. For texts of risk management, refer to O'Reilly, P. (1998). Harnessing the Unicorn: How to Create Opportunity and Manage Risk. London: Gower Publishing Ltd;
170. Sadgrove, K. (1996). The Complete Guide to Business Risk Management. Aldershot: Gower Publishing Ltd;
171. Shapira, Z. (1995). Risk Taking: A Managerial Perspective. New York: Russell Sage Foundation;
172. Waring, A. E., & Glendon, A. I. (1998). Managing Risk. London: International Thomson Business Press; and refer to the latest version of The Risk Technology Guide for a listing of the hundreds of risk management technology packages, consultants and services that are available.
173. Bromley, D. W., & Segerson, K. (1992). The Social Response to Environmental Risk: Policy Formulation in an Age of Uncertainty. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers;
174. Edwards, W. (1954). The theory of decision making. Psychological Bulletin, 51(4), 380-417;
175. Hertz, & Thomas. (1984). Practical Risk Analysis: An Approach Through Case Histories. New York: John Wiley & Sons;
176. MacCrimmon, K. R., & Wehrung, D. A. (1986). op cit.;
177. Munier, B. R. (1995). Markets, Risk and Money: Essays in Honour of Maurice Allais. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers;
178. Roumasset, J. A., Boussard, J., & Singh, I. (1979). Risk, Uncertainty and Agricultural Development. New York: Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture and the Agricultural Development Council.
179. Hequet, M. (1996). Risk: Presenting innovative ideas to superiors. Training, 33(6), 84-90;
180. Wanna, J., Forster, J., & Graham, P. (1996). op cit.
181. McNoll, R. G. (1996). The complex politics of catastrophe economics. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 12, 141-146;
182. Zeckhauser (1996). The economics of catastrophes. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 12, 113-140.
183. Hamilton, J. T., & Viscusi, W. K. (1999). Calculating Risks'? The Spatial and Political Dimensions of Hazardous Waste Policy. Massachusetts: MIT Press;
184. Lewin, L., & Vedung, E. (1980). Politics as Rational Action: Essays in Public Choice and Policy Analysis. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Company;
185. Viscusi, W. K. (1992). Fatal Tradeoffs: Public and Private Responsibilities for Risk. New York: Oxford University Press
186. The role of cost-benefit analysis and other economic approaches to public policy making is an especially provocative topic with relevant literature examples including: Finkel, A. M. (2003). Too much of the "Red Book" is still (!) ahead of its time. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 9(5), 1253-1271;
187. Heinzerling, L., & Ackerman, F. (2002). The humbugs of the anti-regulatory movement. Cornell Law Review, 87(2), 648-670
188. and Pricing the priceless: Cost-benefit analysis of environmental protection. University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 150(5), 1553-1584.
189. Margolis, H. (1996). Dealing with Risk: Why the Public and the Experts Disagree on Environmental Issues. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
190. Trimpop, R. M. (1994). op cit.;
191. Yates, F. J. (1992). Risk-Taking Behaviour. Chichester: Wiley & Sons.
192. Cvetkovich, G., & Lofstedt, R. E. (1999). Social Trust and the Management of Risk. London: Earthscan Publications Ltd.
193. Hood, C., & Jones, D. K. (1996). op cit.
194. Joffe, H. (1999). Risk and "The Other" Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
195. Kogan, N., & Wallach, M. A. (1964). Risk Taking: A Study in Cognition and Personality. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston;
196. Yates, F. J. (1992). op cit.
197. Brehmer, B. (1987). The psychology of risk. In W. T. Singleton & J. Hovden (Eds.), Risk and Decisions. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
198. Krimsky, D. (1992). op cit. (p. 18).
199. Golding, D. (1992). op cit.;
200. Lofstedt, R. E., & Frewer, L. (1998). op cit.
201. Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47(2), 263-291;
202. Bernstein, P. L. (1996). op cit. (p. 270);
203. McDermott, R. (1998). Risk-Taking in International Politics. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. As an anonymous referee helpfully pointed out, this quote should not be interpreted as implying that if we moderate emotions and develop tools to deal with understanding then we can arrive at "economically rational" decisions. While economists continue to search for methods to reveal "true" preferences, psychologists do not acknowledge that that there are any such "true" preferences.
204. A concept attributable to the psychologist David Bell. Bell, D. (1983). Risk premiums for decision regret. Management Science, 29(10), 1156-1166;
205. and elaborated in organizational theory by authors such as Harrison, J. R., & March, J. G. (1984). Decision making and postdecision surprises. Administrative Science Quarterly, 29(1), 26-42;
206. Goitein, B. (1984). The danger of disappearing postdecision surprise: Comment on Harrison and March, "Decision making and postdecision surprises." Administrative Science Quarterly, 29(3), 410-413.
207. Kasperson, R. E., & Kasperson, J. X. (1996). The social amplication and attenuation of risk. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 545, 95-105;
208. Keeney. (1996). The role of values in risk management. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 545, 126-134;
209. Kunreuther, H., & Slovic, P. (1996). Science, values and risk. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 545, 116-125;
210. Margolis, H. (1996). op cit.
211. Covello, V. T., Sandman, P. M., & Slovic, P. (1991). Guidelines for communicating information about chemical risks effectively and responsibly. In D. Mayo & R. D. Hollander (Eds.), Acceptable Evidence: Science and Values in Risk Management. New York: Oxford University Press;
212. Fischhoff, B. Lichtenstein, S., Slovic, P., Derby, S. L., & Keeney, R. L. (1981). Acceptable Risk. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press;
213. Golding, D. (1992). op cit. (p. 43);
214. Gutteling, J. M., & Wiegman, O. (1996). Exploring Risk Communication. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers ;
215. Hadden, S. G. (1989). A Citizen's Right to Know: Risk Communication and Public Policy. Colorado: Westview Press, Inc;
216. Handmer, J., & Penning-Rowsell, E. (1990). Hazards and the Communication of Risk. Hants: Gower Technical;
217. Krimsky, S., & Plough, A. (1988). Environmental Hazards: Communicating Risks as a Social Process. New York: Auburn House;
218. Lofstedt, R. E., & Frewer, L. (1998). op cit.;
219. National Research Council. (1989). op cit.;
220. Powell, D., & Leiss, W. (1997). Mad Cows and Mother's Milk: The Perils of Poor Risk Communicating. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press;
221. Slovic, P. (1992). Perception of risk: Reflections on the psychometric paradigm. In S. Krimsky & D. Golding (Eds.), Social Theories of Risk. Westport: Praeger.
222. Lupton (1999). op cit. (pp. 20-24).
223. Douglas, M. (1992b). Risk and Blame: Essays in Cultural Theory (p. 13). London: Routledge;
224. Hogarth, R. (1987). Judgement and Choice, 2nd ed. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
225. Peters, E., & Slovic, P. (2000). The springs of action: Affective and analytical information processing in choice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(12), 1465-1475;
226. Slovic, P., Finucane, M. L., Peters, E., & MacGregor, D. G. (2004). Risk as analysis and risk as feelings: Some thoughts about affect, reason, risk and rationality. Risk Analysis, 24(2), 311-322;
227. Slovic et al. (2002). Rational actors or rational fools: Implications of the affect heuristic for behavioural economics. Journal of Socio-Economies, 37(4), 329-342.
228. MacCrimmon, K. R., & Wehrung, D. A. (1986). op cit.
229. Leiss, W. (1996). Three phases in the evolution of risk communication practice. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 545, 85-94.
230. Jasanoff, S. (1987). Cultural aspects of risk assessment in Britain and the United States. In B. B. Johnson & V. T. Covello (Eds.), The Social and Cultural Construction of Risk: Essays on Risk Selection and Perception. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Company;
231. Jasanoff, S. (1990). American exceptionalism and the political acknowledgment of risk. Daedalus, 119(4), 61-81.
232. Douglas, M. (1985). op cit. (pp. 66-68).
233. Lave, L. B. (1987). Risk Assessment and Management. New York: Plenum Press.
234. Singleton, W. T., & Hovden, J. (1987). Risk and Decisions. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons;
235. Sjoberg. (1987), Risk and Society: Studies of Risk Generation and Reactions to Risk. London: Allen & Unwin;
236. Kasperson, R. E. (1992). op cit.;
237. Kasperson, R. E., & Kasperson, J. X. (1996). op cit.
238. Glendon, A. I. (1987). Risk cognition. In W. T. Singleton & J. Hovden (Eds.), Risk and Decisions (p. 104). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
239. Yates, F. T. (1992). op cit (p. 323).
240. Cvetkovich, G., & Lofstedt, R. E. (1999). op cit;
241. Otway, H. (1992). op cit;
242. Singleton, W. T., & Hovden, J. (1987). op cit.
243. The seminal works are Risk and Culture with Aaron Wildavsky (1982)
244. and Risk and Blame: Essays in Cultural Theory (1992).
245. For a summary of other anthropological work on risk, see Reddy, S. J. (1996). op cit.
246. Bergesen, A., Hunter, J. D., Kurzweil, E., & Wuthnow, R. (1984). Cultural Analysis: The Work of Peter L. Berger, Mary Douglas, Michel Foucault, and Jurgen Habermas. Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul;
247. Fardon, R. (1999). Mary Douglas: An Intellectual Biography. London: Routledge;
248. Rayner, S. (1992). Cultural theory and risk analysis. In S. Krimsky & D. Golding (Eds.), Social Theories of Risk. Westport: Praeger.
249. Douglas, M. (1985). op cit. (p. 2);
250. Douglas, M. (1992). op cit. (p. 10).
251. Douglas, M. (1992). Ibid.
252. Douglas, M. (1992). Ibid. (pp. 38-39, 79).
253. Douglas, M., & Wildavsky, A. (1982). op cit.;
254. Rayner, S. (1992). op cit.;
255. Thompson, M., Ellis, R., & Wildavsky, A. (1990). Cultural Theory. Boulder: Westview Press;
256. Turney, J. (1988). Profile: Out of tune with the rest of the group. Times Higher Education Supplement, 25, 11-13.
257. Adams, J. (1995). op cit.
258. Applications to the political sphere are made by Adams, J. (1999). Cars, Cholera, and Cows: The Management of Risk and Uncertainty. Washington: Cato Institute;
259. Bellaby, P. (1990). To risk or not to risk? Uses and limitations of Mary Douglas on risk-acceptability for understanding health and safety at work and road accidents. Sociological Review, 38(3), 465-483;
260. Douglas, M. (1992a). An institutional ecology of values. In S. H. Heap & A. Ross (Eds.), Understanding the Enterprise Culture: Themes in the Work of Mary Douglas. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press;
261. Hood, C. (1995). Control over bureaucracy: Cultural theory and institutional variety. Journal of Public Policy. 15(3), 207-230;
262. Jensen, L. (1998). Cultural theory and democratizing functional domains. The case of Danish housing. Public Administration, 76(1), 117-139;
263. Wildavsky, A. (1985). op cit.;
264. Wildavsky A. (1987). Frames of Reference Come from Cultures: A Predictive Theory. Survey Research Center Working Paper Series University of California, Berkeley (unpublished manuscript).
265. Bellaby, P. (1990). Ibid;
266. Boholm, A. (1996). Risk perception and social anthropology: Critique of cultural theory. Ethnos, 61(1-2), 64-84;
267. Downey, G. L. (1986). Risk in culture: The American conflict over nuclear power. Cultural Anthropology, 1(4), 388-412;
268. Fardon, R. (1999). op cit. (pp. 145, 162-166);
269. Shrader-Frechette, K. (1991). op cit.;
270. Turney, J. (1988). op cit.;
271. Weinstein, G. (1983). Book reviews: American government and politics. American Political Science Review, 77(1), 203-204.
272. Thompson, M., & Rayner, S. (1998). op cit.
273. Culpitt, I. (1999). Social Policy and Risk (p. 92). London: Sage Publications.
274. Culpitt, I. (1999). Ibid. (p. 121);
275. Furlong, A., & Cartmel, F. (1997). Young People and Social Change: Individualization and Risk in Late Modernity. Buckingham: Open University Press.
276. The temporal dimension to risk is elaborated by Luhmann, N. (1993). Risk: A Sociological Theory. New York: Aldine De Gruyter.
277. Caplan, P. (2000). Introduction. In P. Caplan (Ed.), Risk Revisited (p. 6). London: Pluto Press.
278. Culpitt, I. (1999). Ibid.
279. Furedi, F. (1997). Culture of Fear: Risk-Taking and the Morality of Low Expectations. London: Cassell.
280. Renn, O. (1992). op cit.
281. Lupton, D. (1999). Introduction: Risk and sociocultural theory. In D. Lupton (Ed.), Risk and Sociocultural Theory: New Directions and Perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press;
282. Lupton, D. (1999). op cit.
283. Alexander, J. C. (1996). Critical reflections on "Reflexive Modernization." Theory, Culture & Society, 13(4), 133-138;
284. Beck, U. (1998b). The challenge of world risk society. Korea Journal, 38(4), 196-206;
285. Cohen, M. J. (1997). Risk society and ecological modernisation. Futures, 29(2), 105-119;
286. Culpitt, I. (1999). op cit;
287. Engel, U., & Strasser, H. (1998). Note on the discipline/notes sociologiques. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 25(1), 91-103;
288. Furlong, A., & Cartmel, F. (1997). op cit;
289. Hajer, M., & Kesselring, S. (1999). Democracy in the risk society? Learning from the new politics of mobility in Munich. Environmental Politics, 8(3), 1-23;
290. Kasperson, L. B. (2000). Anthony Giddens: An Introduction to a Social Theorist. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd;
291. Kyung-Sup, C. (1998). Risk components of compressed modernity: South Korea as complex risk society. Korea Journal, 55(1), 207-228;
292. Lash, S., & Wynne, B. (1992). Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity. London: Sage Publications;
293. Lupton, D. (1999). Ibid.;
294. Marshall, B. K. (1999). Globalisation, enviornmental degradation and Ulrich Beck's risk society. Environmental Values, 8(2), 253-275;
295. Mol, A. P., & Spaargaren, G. (1993). Environment, modernity and the risk society: The apocalyptic horizon of environmental reform. International Sociology, 8(4), 431-459;
296. Petersen, A. R. (1996). Risk and the regulated self: The discourse of health promotion as politics of uncertainty. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology, 32(1), 44-57;
297. Rustin, M. (1994). Incomplete modernity: Ulrich Beck's risk society. Radical Philosophy, 67, 3-12;
298. Smith, M., Law, A., Work, H., & Panay, A. (1999). The reinvention of politics: Ulrich Beck and reflexive modernity. Environmental Politics, 8(3), 169-173.
299. Bergesen, A., et al. (1984). op cit. (p. 88);
300. Caplan, P. (2000). op cit. (p. 5);
301. Kasperson, L. B. (2000). Ibid.
302. Culpitt, I. (1999). op cit. (p. 110).
303. Refer to Caplan, P. (2000). Risk Revisited. London: Pluto Press;
304. Furedi, F. (1997). op cit.;
305. Lupton, D. (1999). op cit.;
306. Lupton, D. (1999). op cit. for examples where risk has been specifically applied to everyday and emotive experiences.
307. Beck, U. (1992). From industrial society to the risk society: Questions of survival, social structure and ecological enlightenment. In M. Featherstone (Ed.), Cultural Theory and Cultural Change (p. 101). London: Sage Publications.
308. Giddens, A. (1999). op cit. (p. 26).
309. The new structural condition facing politicians is often associated with globalization (see Beck, U. (1992) op cit.)
310. and dictates that politics is not about choosing risks as much as about managing risks, which, while not originating in the political sphere, have to be politically managed (see Giddens (1998). op cit. (p. 29)).
311. The political environment imposed by the risk society is perhaps best summed up by Furedi. (1997). op cit. (p. 42) when he states: "Today, ideology is not decisive in the formation of risk consciousness. The entire political spectrum-left to right, conservative to liberal-shares a common consciousness of risk. Whilst there may be debate about what constitutes the gravest risk, there is an acceptance of the consensus that we live in an increasingly dangerous world."
312. When it comes to risk, there is an increasing belief amongst the community that politics cannot solve problems of risk (see Franklin, J. (1998). op cit.).
313. We have become sceptical toward change and to our ability to find solutions. Beck (see (1992). op cit. (p. 103) and (1992). op cit.) sees the risk society as one of "organised irresponsibility," thus necessitating in the minds of sociologists such as himself and Giddens the need for political reflexivity.
314. Often, the risk society is defined as a world of multiple moralities, with politics left struggling to find some form of social cohesion or social "glue" in order to find a path for political relevance and usefulness (see Pahl, R. (1998). in Franklin, J. op cit.).
315. Politics is also struggling to find some means of dealing with the intimacy of risk. Just as risk cuts across intimate relationships, the fact that it deals personally with human beings makes risk a highly charged arena within which politicians must skate. Many sociologists suggest that it is thus trust that defines whether a potential issue becomes risky or not and whether a risky issue is handled well or not (see Giddens, A. (1998). op cit.,
316. Coote, A. (1998). Risk and public policy: Towards a high-trust democracy. In J. Franklin (Ed.), The Politics of Risk Society. Cambridge: Polity Press, in association with the Institute of Public Policy Research;
317. Sztompka, P. (1999). Trust: A Sociological Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press;
318. Wynne, B. (1992). Risk and social learning: Relocation to engagement. In S. Krimsky & D. Golding (Eds.), Social Theories of Risk. Westport: Praeger.
319. Foucault, M. (1991). Governmentality. In G. Burchell, C. Gordon, & P. Miller (Eds.), The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
320. Lupton, D. (1999). op cit. (p. 4).
321. O'Malley, P. (2000). Uncertain subjects: Risks, Iliberalism and contract. Economy and Society, 29(4), 460-484.
322. Castel, R. (1991). From dangerousness to risk. In G. Burchell, C. Gordon, & P. Miller (Eds.), The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf;
323. Ewald, F. (1991). Insurance and risk. In G. Burchell, C. Gordon, & P. Miller (Eds.), The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
324. Dean, M. (1999). Risk, calcuable and incalcuable. In D. Lupton (Ed.), Risk and Sociocultural Theory: New Directions and Perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press;
325. O'Malley, P. (1992). Risk, power and crime prevention. Economy and Society, 21(3), 252-275;
326. Petersen, A. R. (1996). op cit.;
327. Simon, J. (1987). The emergence of a risk society: Insurance, law, and the state. Socialist Review, 17(5), 61-89.
328. Dean, M. (1999). op cit.;
329. Simon, J. (1987). Ibid.
330. Dean, M. (1999). Ibid. (p. 155).
331. Lupton, D. (1999). op cit.;
332. Lupton, D. (1999). op cit;
333. Caplan, P. (2000). op cit;
334. Scott, A. (2000). Risk society or angst society? Two views of risk, consciousness and community. In B. Adam, U. Beck, & J. Van Loon (Eds.), The Risk Society and Beyond: Critical Issues for Social Theory. London: Sage Publications;
335. Lash, S. (2000). Risk culture. In B. Adam, U. Beck, & J. Van Loon (Eds.), ibid.
336. Dean, M. (1999) p. 155.
337. Adam, B., Beck, U., & Van Loon, J. (2000). The Risk Society and Beyond: Critical Issues for Social Theory. London: Sage Publications;
338. Beck, U. (1992). op cit.;
339. Beck, U. (1992). Risk society: Towards a new modernity. In M. Featherstone (Ed.), Theory, Culture & Society. London: Sage Publications, (p. 176);
340. Coote, A. (1998). op cit.;
341. Furedi, E (1997). op cit.;
342. Giddens, A. (1998). Risk society: The context of British politics. In J. Franklin (Ed.), The Politics of Risk Society. Cambridge: Polity Press, in association with the Institute of Public Policy Research;
343. Lupton, D. (1999). op cit.;
344. Simon, J. (1987). op cit.;
345. Sztompka, P. (1999). op cit.,
346. Wynne, B. (1992). op cit.
347. Rowland, R. (1990). The risk. In Rowland, R., Perverse Serenity. Port Melbourne: William Heinemann Australia;
348. Meares, R. (1988). The risk. In Meares, R., Night of No Home. Melbourne: Hill of Content Publishing.
349. Naas, M. (1995). Philosophy bound: The fate of the Promethean Socrates. Research in Phenomenology, 25, 121-141;
350. Walker, B. (1996). Risks. South Fremantle: Fremantle Arts Centre Press.
351. Malouf, D. (1970). On refusing an all risk insurance policy. In Malouf, D., Bicycle and Other Poems. St Lucia: University of Queensland Press Ltd;
352. Williams, C. K. (1999). Poetry. Risk, 174 (2), 66.
353. Shepherd, R. (1998). A boy called risk. Callaloo, 21(2), 281;
354. Walker, B. (1996). op cit.
355. Charkianakis, S. S. (1994). One definition more. In S. Smith (Ed.), Fireworks and Sparrows: Selected Poems by S. S. Charkianakis. Leichhardt, NSW: Primavera Press;
356. Cone, M. (1989). Warhol's risk: Voyeurism or exposure? Arts Magazine, 63(10), 51-55;
357. LaFleur, W (1991). Poetry and risk: Ideology's edge in Dogen and Tamekane. Eastern Buddhist, 24(2), 123-140;
358. McManus, I. (1987). "The ultimate risk": New watercolors by Carolyn Brady. Arts Magazine, 61, June:86-87;
359. Rubin Suleiman, S. (1994). Risking Who One Is: Encounters with Contemporary Art and Literature. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press;
360. Shuster, F. (1994). Charlie Haden: Risk your life for every note. Down Beat, 61, August, (8), 16-19;
361. Ullrich, P. (1998). The workmanship of risk: The reemergence of handcraft in postmodern art. New Art Examiner, 25, April, (7), 24-29;
362. Walker, B. (1996). op cit.
363. Pascal, A. (1922). The Risk: A Play in Four Acts. London: Duckworth and Co;
364. Beck, U. (1992). op cit.;
365. Mamis, J. (1991). The Nature of Risk: Stock Market Survival and the Meaning of Life. Reading: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company;
366. Naas, M. (1995). op cit.;
367. Shelp, E. E. (1983). Courage and tragedy in clinical medicine. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 8(4), 417-429.
368. Adams, J. (1995). op cit.;
369. Lynch, M. F. (1996). Haunted by innocence: The debate with Dostoevsky in Wright's "Other Novel," "The Outsider." African American Review, 30(2), 255-266.
370. For a description of the risk game, see http://boardgames. about.com/library/weekly/aa-risk-101.htm, (last visited Oct. 16,2003). The game has been included in the section on the arts because its is an example where the idea of risk is being used in popular culture and with an underlying distribution for mass communication of risk concepts.
371. Weaver, W. (1963), Lady Luck: The Theory of Probability. London: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd
372. and the Fall issue of Daedalus (1990).
373. Cameron, D. (1985). The submerging figure. Arts Magazine, 60, 68-71;
374. Communications Art Magazine (1992). 34, 10-11,
375. Kuspit, D. B. (1985). Arneson's outrage. Art in America, 73, 134-139;
376. Larson, K. (1996). What's wrong with this picture? ARTNews, 85, 110-112;
377. Nawrocki, J. (1999). Fabrice Hybert. New Art Examiner, 27(2), 41.
378. Palmlund, I. (1992). Social drama and risk evaluation. In S. Krimsky & D. Golding (Eds.), Social Theories of Risk (p. 203). Westport: Praeger.
379. Palmlund, I. (1992). Ibid. (p. 211)
380. Robinson, P. (1999). The CNN effect: Can the news media drive foreign policy? Review of International Studies, 25(2), 301-309.
381. Smith, K. K. (1998). Storytelling, sympathy and moral judgment in American abolitionism. Journal of Political Philosophy, 6(4), 356-377.
382. Sandman, P. M. (1997). Mass media and environmental risk: Seven principles. In R. Bate (Ed.), What Risk? Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
383. Epstein, E. J. (1973). News from Nowhere: Television and the News. New York: Vintage Books;
384. Greenberg, M. R., Sachsman, D. B., Sandman, P. M., & Salomone, K. L. (1989). Risk, drama and geography in coverage of environmental risk by network TV. Journalism Quarterly, 66(2), 267-276;
385. Sandman, P. M. (1997). Ibid.
386. Dunwoody, S. (1992). The media and public perceptions of risk: How journalists frame risk stories. In D. W. Bromley & K. Segerson (Eds.). The Social Response to Environmental Risk: Policy Formulation in an Age of Uncertainty. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers;
387. Rothman, S. (1990). Journalists, broadcasters, scientific experts and public opinion. Minerva, 28(2), 117-133.
388. Wilson, J. D. (1997). op cit. (p. viii);
389. Epstein, E. J. (1973). op cit. (pp. 67-68).
390. Dunwoody, S. (1992). op cit.
391. Frank in Epstein, E. J. (1973). op cit. (pp. 4, 39).
392. The significant impact of the media on public opinion and political activity in relation to risk stories and risk communication is a heavily debated topic. On the one hand, the media is seen as a valuable tool of democracy, positioned to enhance transparency and accountabilityem. On the other side of the debate, the media is viewed as a contributor to "quick-and-dirty," simplistic and opinion-ridden reporting that gives an image or economic-driven interpretation of facts able to be twisted by an elitist, and even conspiratorial, group. The "reasonable reader" concept is a useful introductory mechanism for exploring this debate, a summary of which can be sourced from Flannery, M. (2000). Risk communication and the reasonable reader concept. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 55(3), 42-49.
393. Hansson, S. O. (1996). What is philosophy of risk? Theoria, 62(1-2), 169-186.
394. Lloyd. (1999). Fate and fortune: Derrida on facing the future. Philosophy Today, Suppment: 27-35.
395. Rescher, N. (1983). Risk: A Philosophical Introduction to the Theory of Risk Evaluation and Management. Washingon: University Press of America Inc;
396. Thompson, P. B. (1986). op cit.
397. Hansson, S. O. (1996). op cit.;
398. Shrader-Frechette, K. (1985). op cit.;
399. Stich, S. P. (1982). On genetic engineering, the epistemology of risk and the value of life. In L. J. Cohen, J. Los, H. Pfeiffer, & K. P. Podewski (Eds.), Logic, Methodology and Philosophy of Science VI: Proceedings of the Sixth International Congress of Logic, Methodology and Philosophy of Science, Hannover 1979. Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company;
400. Thompson, P. B. (1986). op cit.;
401. Weirich, P. (1986). Expected utility and risk. British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 37, 419-442.
402. Axinn, S. (1966). Discussion: Fallacy of the single risk. Philosophy of Science, 33(2), 154-162.
403. Kadvany, J. (1997). Varieties of risk representations. Journal of Social Philosophy, 28(3), 123-143.
404. Bittle, C. (1936). Reality and the Mind: Epistemology, (pp. 20-22). Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Company.
405. Douglas, M. (1985). op cit. (pp. 12-18);
406. Fried, C. (1970). An Anatomy of Values: Problems of Personal and Social Choice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press;
407. Hansson, S. O. (1996). op cit.:
408. Katz, L. (1990). The assumption of risk argument. Social Philosophy and Policy, 7(2), 138-169;
409. Lackey, D. P. (1986). Taking risk seriously. Journal of Philosophy, 55(11), 633-640;
410. MacLean, D. (1982). Risk and consent: Philosophical issues for centralized decision. Risk Analysis, 2(2), 59-67;
411. MacLean, D. (1986). Values at Risk. New Jersey: Rowman & Allanheld Publishers;
412. McKerlie, D. (1986). Rights and risk. Canadian Journal of Philosophy, 16(2), 239-252;
413. Moody, H. R. (1988). Generational insurance and social equity. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 13(1), 31-56;
414. Shelp, E. E. (1983). op cit.;
415. Shrader-Freshette, K. (1985). op cit.;
416. Teuber, A. (1990). Justifying risk. Daedalus, 119(4), 235-253;
417. Van de-Vate, D., & Kelly, J. (1978). The concept of risk. Southern Journal of Philosophy, 16(2), 115-124;
418. Von Magnus, E. (1982). Risk, state and Nozick. Midwest Studies in Philosophy, 7, 121-132.
419. Finnis, J., Boyle, J., & Grisez, G. (1987). Nuclear Deterrence, Morality and Realism. Oxford: Clarendon Press;
420. MacLean, D. (1984). The Security Gamble: Deterrence Dilemmas in the Nuclear Age. New Jersey: Rowman & Allanheld.
421. Shelp, E. E. (1983). op cit.
422. Lackey, D. P. (1986). op cit.;
423. Stich, S. P. (1982). op cit.
424. Simon, J. (1987). op cit. (p. 67).
425. Honore, T. (1995). About Law: An Introduction. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
426. For rulings regarding negligence, refer to, for example, MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co. (1916).
427. For rulings on strict liability, refer to Rylands v. Fletcher (1868)
428. in England and Escola v. Coca Cola Bottling of Fresno (1944) in the United States.
429. Bruggemeier, G. (1997). The control of corporate conduct and reduction of uncertainty by tort law. In R. Baldwin (Ed.), Law and Uncertainty: Risks and Legal Processes. London: Kluwer Law International Ltd;
430. McLoughlin, J. (1981). Risk and legal liability. In R.F. Griffiths (Ed.), Dealing with Risk: The Planning, Management and Acceptability of Technological Risk. Manchester: Manchester University Press;
431. Simon, J. (1987). op cit. (pp. 70-71)
432. Priest, G. L. (1990). The new legal structure of risk control. Daedalus, 119(4), 207,215.
433. Coleman, J. L. (1992). Risks and Wrongs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
434. Baldwin, R. (1997). op cit.;
435. Breyer, S. (1993). op cit.;
436. Hadden, S. G., & Hazelton, J. (1980). Public policies towards risk. Policy Studies Journal, 9, Autumn, (1), 109-116;
437. Wilson, G. (2000). Business, state, and community: "Responsible risk takers," New Labour, and the governance of corporate business. Journal of Law and Society, 27(1), 151-177.
438. Luhmann, N. (1993). op cit. (p. 64).
439. Baldwin, R. (1997). op cit. (p. 14).
440. Ewald, F. (1991). op cit. (pp. 202-203).
441. Vig, N. J., & Bruer, P. J. (1982). The courts and risk assessment. Policy Studies Review, 1(4), 716-727.
442. Foster, K. R., Bernstein, D. E., & Huber, P. W. (1993). Phantom Risk: Scientific Inference and the Law. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press;
443. Priest, G. L. (1990). op cit.
444. Foster, K. R. et al. (1993). Ibid;
445. Gawlak, W. M., & Byrd, D. M. (1987). Divergent approaches to uncertainty in risk assessment: Mathematical expression compared to circumstantial evidence. In V. T. Covello, L. B. Lave, A. Moghissi, & V. R. R. Uppuluri (Eds.), Uncertainty in Risk Assessment, Risk Management, and Decision Making. New York: Plenum Press;
446. Ricci, P. F. (1985). op cit.
447. Bernstein, P. L. (2000). Facing the consequences. Business Economics, 35, 8.
448. Denenberg, H. S., Eilers, R. D., Melone, J. J., & Zelten, R. A. (1974). Risk and Insurance (p. 4). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc.
449. Lundeen, L. T. (1972). Risk and Rhetoric in Religion: Whitehead's Theory of Language and the Discourse of Faith. Philadelphia: Fortress Press (fronticepiece).
450. Bernstein, P. L. (1996), op cit. (pp. 69-70);
451. Bernstein, P. L. (2000) op cit.;
452. Gigerenzer, G. et al. (1989). op cit. (p. 1).
453. Sanders, J. (1998). The God Who Risks: A Theology of Providence. Downers Grove: Intervarsity Press.
454. Danielou, J. (1961). The Scandal of Truth (p. 95). London: Catholic Book Club.
455. Adams, J. (1995). op cit. (pp. 16-19);
456. Rowe, W. D. (1977). op cit. (p. 13)
457. Gregg, S., & Preece, G. (1999). Christianity and Entrepreneurship: Protestant and Catholic Thoughts. (CIS Policy Monograph 44). St. Leonards: Centre for Independent Studies.
458. Levine, M. P. (1982). Kierkegaard: What does the subjective individual risk? International Journal for Philosophy of Religion, 13, 13-22;
459. Wall, J. M. (1989). When risk analysis confronts faith. Christian Century, 106(37), 1139-1140.
460. Bernstein, P. L. (2000). op cit.;
461. and see also Adams, J. (1995). op cit. (p. 209).
462. Douglas, M. (1997). op cit. (p. 131).
463. McDermott, R. (1998). op cit;
464. Dietz, T. M., & Rycroft, R. W. (1987). op cit.;
465. Ericson, R. V., & Haggerty, K. D. (1997). Policing the Risk Society. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
466. Hajer, M. A. (1995). The Politics of Environmental Discourse: Ecological Modernization and the Policy Process. Oxford: Clarendon Press;
467. Kellow, A. (1999). International Toxic Risk Management: Ideals, Interests and Implementation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press;
468. Kraft, M. E. (2000). Policy design and the acceptability of environmental risks: Nuclear waste disposal in Canada and the United States. Policy Studies Journal, 25(1), 206-218;
469. and see the Policy Studies Journal (2000). Symposium on Uncertainty and Environmental Policy.
470. Lewin, L., & Vedung, E. (1980). op cit.
471. Nagel, S. S. (1984). Contemporary Public Policy Analysis. Alabama: University of Alabama Press cursorily discusses the ethics of subjecting people to risk;
472. Hood, C., & Jones, D. K. (1996). op cit.
473. and Stewart, R. G. (1999). Public Policy: Strategy and Accountability. South Yarra: MacMillan Publishers Australia Pty Ltd consider the application of risk management in the policy process,
474. while Hede, A., & Prasser, S. (1993). Policy-Making in Volatile Times. Sydney: Hale & Iremonger briefly contemplate the notion of risk and uncertainty for government policy making.
475. Cioffi-Revilla, C. (1998). Politics and Uncertainty: Theory, Models and Applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press;
476. Hiskes, R. (1998a). Democracy, Risk, and Community: Technological Hazards and the Evolution of Liberalism. New York: Oxford University Press;
477. Hiskes, R. (1998), Hazardous liaisons: Risk, power and politics in the liberal state. Policy Studies Journal, 26(2), 257-273;
478. Nichols, R. (1996). Maxims, "Practical Wisdom," and the language of action: Beyond grand theory. Political Theory, 24(4), 687-705;
479. Sundakov, A., & Yeabsely, J. (1999). Risk and the Institutions of Government. Wellington: Institute of Policy Studies, Victoria University of Wellington;
480. Waring, A. E., & Glendon, A. I. (1998). op cit.