Is Depression a Major Risk Factor for Coronary Disease? A Systematic Review of the Epidemiologic Evidence

Harvard Review of Psychiatry

Volumn 12, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 79-93

  Wulsin, Lawson R ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b NONE   (United States)

Author keywords

Cardiovascular disease; Depression; Depressive disorders; Myocardial ischemia

Indexed keywords

ADULT; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; DEPRESSION; FEMALE; HEART DEATH; HEART INFARCTION; HEART REHABILITATION; HIGH RISK PATIENT; HUMAN; MAJOR DEPRESSION; MALE; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; RISK REDUCTION; SYMPTOMATOLOGY;

EID: 2342593271     PISSN: 10673229     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10673220490447191     Document Type: Review

References (116)

1. Nemeroff CB, O'Connor CM. Depression as a risk factor for cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease: emerging data and clinical perspectives. Am Heart J 2000;140(4 suppl):55-6.
2. Sauer WH, Berlin JA, Kimmel SE. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and myocardial infarction. Circulation 2001;104:1894-8.
3. Castelli WP. Lipids, risk factors and ischaemic heart disease. Atherosclerosis 1996;124(suppl):S1-9.
4. Glassman AH, Shapiro PA. Depression and the course of coronary artery disease. Am J Psychiatry 1998;155:4-11.
5. Musselman DL, Evans DL, Nemeroff CB. The relationship of depression to cardiovascular disease: epidemiology, biology, treatment. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998;55:580-92.
6. Barrick CB. Epidemiological evidence for a casual relationship between mood disorders and coronary artery disease. J Affect Disord 1999;53:193-201.
7. Dwight MM, Stoudemire A. Effects of depressive disorders on coronary artery disease: a review. Harv Rev Psychiatry 1997;5:115-22.
8. Januzzi JL, Stern TA, Pasternak RC, DeSanctis RW. The influence of anxiety and depression on outcomes of patients with coronary artery disease. Arch Intern Med 2000;160: 1913-21.
9. Frasure-Smith N, Lesperance F. Psychosocial risks and cardiovascular diseases. Can J Cardiol 1999;15(suppl G):93G-7G.
10. Wulsin LR, Singal BM. Do depressive symptoms increase the risk for the onset of coronary disease? A systematic quantitative review. Psychosom Med 2003;65:201-10.
11. Ziegelstein RC. Depression in patients recovering from a myocardial infarction. JAMA 2001;161:1621-7.
12. Rugulies R. Depression as a predictor of coronary heart disease. Am J Prev Med 2002;23:51-61.
13. Rozanski A, Blumenthal JA, Kaplan J. Impact of psychological factors on the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease and implications for therapy. Circulation 1999;99:2192-217.
14. Hemingway H, Marmot M. Psychosocial factors in the aetiology and prognosis of coronary heart disease: systematic: review of prospective cohort studies. BMJ 1999;318:1460-7.
15. Carney RM, Freedland KE, Miller GE, Jaffe AS. Depression as a risk factor for cardiac mortality and morbidity: a review of potential mechanisms. J Psychosom Res 2002;53:897-902.
16. Greenberg PE, Stiglin LE, Finkelstein SN, Berndt ER. Depression: a neglected major illness. J Clin Psychiatry 1993;54:11:419-26.
17. Wells KB, Stewart A, Hays RD, Burnam MA, Rogers W, Daniels M, et al. The functioning and well-being of depressed patients. JAMA 1989;262:914-9.
18. Murray CJ, Lopez AD. The global burden of disease: summary. Cambridge: Harvard School of Public Health, 1996.
19. Rothman KJ. Modern epidemiology. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven, 1998.
20. Hill AB. The environment and disease: association or causation? Proc R Soc Med 1965;58:295-300.
21. Libby P. Athersclerosis: the new view. Sci Am 2002;286(5):47-55.
22. Hallstrom T, Lapidus L, Bengtsson C, Edstrom K. Psychosocial factors and risk of ischaemic heart disease and death in women: a twelve-year follow-up of participants in the population study of women in Gothenburg, Sweden. J Psychosom Res 1986;30:451-9.
23. Anda R, Williamson D, Jones D, Macera C, Eaker E, Glassman A, et al. Depressed affect, hopelessness, and the risk of ischemic heart disease in a cohort of U.S. adults. Epidemiology 1993;4:285-94.
24. Aromaa A, Raitasalo R, Reunanen A, Impivaara O, Heliovaara M, Knekt P, et al. Depression and cardiovascular diseases. Acta Psychiatr Scand Supp 1994;337:77-82.
25. Vogt T, Pope C, Mullooly J, Hollis J. Mental health status as a predictor of morbidity and mortality: a 15-year follow-up of members of a health maintenance organization. Am J Public Health 1994;84:227-31.
26. Everson S, Kaplan G, Goldberg D, Cohen R, Tuomilehto J, Salonen J. Depressive symptoms and risk of myocardial infarction and mortality. Am J Epidemiol 1995;141(suppl): S37.
27. Barefoot JC, Schroll M. Symptoms of depression, acute myocardial infarction and total mortality in a community sample. Circulation 1996;93:1976-80.
28. Pratt LA, Ford DE, Crum RM, Armenian HK, Gallo JJ, Eaton WW. Depression, psychotropic medication, and risk of myocardial infarction. Circulation 1996;94:3123-9.
29. Vaillant GE, Orav J, Meyer SE, McCullough Vaillant L, Roston D. Late-life consequences of affective spectrum disorder. Int Psychogeriatr 1996;8:13-31.
30. Ford DE, Mead LA, Chang PP, Cooper-Patrick L, Wang NY, Klag MJ. Depression is a risk factor for coronary artery disease in men: the Precursors Study. Arch Intern Med 1998;158:1422-6.
31. Mendes de Leon CF, Krumholz HM, Seeman TS, Vaccarino V, Williams CS, Kasl SV, et al. Depression and risk of coronary heart disease in elderly men and women: New Haven EPESE, 1882-1991. Arch Intern Med 1998;158:2341-8.
32. Penninx BW, Guralnik JM, Mendes de Leon CF, Pahor M, Visser M, Corti MC, et al. Cardiovascular events and mortality in newly and chronically depressed persons > 70 years of age. Am J Cardiol 1998;81:988-94.
33. Sesso HD, Kawachi I, Vokonas PS, Sparrow D. Depression and the risk of coronary heart disease in the Normative Aging Study. Am J Cardiol 1998;82:851-6.
34. Whooley MA, Browner WS. Association between depressive symptoms and mortality in older women. Arch Intern Med 1998;158:2129-35.
35. Ferketich AK, Schwartzbaum JA, Frid DJ, Moeschberger ML. Depression as an antecedent to heart disease among women and men in the NHANES I Study. Arch Intern Med 2000;160:1261-8.
36. Penninx BW, Beekman AT, Honig A, Deeg DJ, Schoevers RA, van Eijk JT, et al. Depression and cardiac mortality. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001;58:221-7.
37. Zilber N, Schufman N, Lerner Y. Mortality among psychiatric patients - the groups at risk. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1989;79:248-56.
38. Wassertheil-Smoller S, Applegate WB, Berge K, Chang CJ, Davis BR, Grimm R Jr, et al. Change in depression as a precursor of cardiovascular events. SHEP Cooperative Research Group. Arch Intern Med 1996;156:553-61.
39. Hippisley-Cox, Fielding K, Pringle M. Depression as a risk factor for ischaemic heart disease in men: population based case-control study. BMJ 1998;316:1714-9.
40. Coryell W, Turvey C, Andrew L, Maser JD, Solomon D, Endicott J, et al. Persistence of depressive symptoms and cardiovascular death among patients with affective disorder. Psychosom Med 1999;61:755-61.
41. Cay EL, Vetter N, Philip AE, Dugard P. Psychological status during recovery from an acute heart attack. J Psychosom Res 1972;16:425-35.
42. Kavanagh T, Shephard RJ, Tuck JA. Depression after myocardial infarction. CMAJ 1975;113:23-7.
43. Stern MJ, Pascale L, Ackerman A. Life adjustment postmyocardial infarction. Arch Intern Med 1977;137:1680-5.
44. Vazquez-Barquero JL, Padierna Acero JA, Ochoteco A, Diez Manrique JF. Mental illness and ischemic heart disease: analysis of psychiatric morbidity. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1985;7:15-20.
45. Carney RM, Rich MW, Freedland KE, Saini J, Tevelde A, Simeone C, et al. Major depressive disorder predicts cardiac events in patients with coronary artery disease. Psychosom Med 1988;50:627-33.
46. Schleifer SJ, Macari-Hinson MM, Coyle DA, Slater WR, Kahn M, Gorlin R, et al. The nature and course of depression following myocardial infarction. Arch Intern Med 1989;149:1785-9.
47. Ahern DK, Gorkin L, Anderson JL, Tierney C, Hallstrom A, Ewart C, et al. Biobehavioral variables and mortality or cardiac arrest in the Cardiac Arrhythmia Pilot Study (CAPS). Am J Cardiol 1990;66:59-62.
48. Silverstone PH. Depression increases mortality and morbidity in acute life-threatening medical illness. J Psychosom Res 1990;34:651-7.
49. Forrester AW, Lipsey JR, Teitelbaum ML, DePaulo JR, Andrzejewski PL. Depression following myocardial infarction. Int J Psychiatry Med 1992;22:33-46.
50. Travella JL, Forrester AW, Schultz SK, Robinson RG. Depression following myocardial infarction: A one year longitudinal study. Int J Psychiatry Med 1994;24:357-69.
51. Frasure-Smith N, Lesperance F, Talajic M. Depression and 18-month prognosis after myocardial infarction. Circulation 1995;91:999-1005.
52. Barefoot JC, Helms MJ, Mark DB, Blumenthal JA, Cailiff RM, Haney TL, et al. Depression and long-term mortality risk in patients with coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol 1996;78:613-7.
53. Hance M, Carney RM, Freedland KE, Skala J. Depression in patients with coronary heart disease. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1996;18:61-5.
54. Lesperance F, Frasure-Smith N, Talsjic M. Major depression before and after myocardial infarction: its nature and its consequences. Psychosom Med 1996;58:99-110.
55. Levine JB, Covino NA, Slack WV, Safran C, Safran DB, Boro JE, et al. Psychological predictors of subsequent medical care among patients hospitalized with cardiac disease. J Cardiopulm Rehabil 1996;16:109-16.
56. Ladwig K, Roll G, Breithardt G, Borggrefe M. Extracardiac contributions to chest pain perception in patients 6 months after acute myocardial infarction. Am Heart J 1999;137:528-34.
57. Frasure-Smith N, Lesperance F, Gravel G, Masson A, Juneau M, Talsjic M, et al. Social support, depression, and mortality during the first year after myocardial infarction. Circulation 2000;101:1919-24.
58. Lesperance F, Frasure-Smith N, Juneau M, Theroux P. Depression and 1-year prognosis in unstable angina. Arch Intern Med 2000;160:1354-60.
59. Mayou R, Gill D, Thompson DR, Day A, Hicks N, Volmink J, et al. Depression and anxiety as predictors of outcome after myocardial infarction. Psychosom Med 2000;62:212-9.
60. Connerney I, Shapiro PA, McLaughlin JS, Bagiella E, Sloan RP. Relation between depression after coronary artery bypass surgery and 12-month outcome: a prospective study. Lancet 2001;358:1766-71.
61. Lane D, Carroll D, Ring C, Beevers DG, Lip GY. In-hospital symptoms of depression do not predict mortality 3 years after myocardial infarction. Int J Epidemiol 2002;31:1179-82.
62. Lesperance F, Frasure-Smith N, Talajic M, Bourassa MG. Five-year risk of cardiac mortality in relation to initial severity and one-year changes in depression symptoms after myocardial infarction. Circulation 2002;105:1049-53.
63. Peterson JC, Charlson ME, Williams-Russo P, Krieger KH, Pirraglia PA, Meyers BS, et al. New postoperative depressive symptoms and long-term cardiac outcomes after coronary artery bypass surgery. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2002;10: 192-8.
64. Romanelli J, Fauerbach JA, Bush DE, Ziegelstein RC. The significance of depression in older patients after myocardial infarction. J Am Geriatr Soc 2002;50:969-70.
65. Shiotani I, Sato H, Kinjo K, Nakatani D, Mizuno H, Ohnishi Y, Hishida E, et al. Depressive symptoms predict 12-month prognosis in elderly patients with acute myocardial infarction. J Cardiovasc Risk 2002;9:153-60.
66. Ariyo A, Haan M, Tangen CM, Rutledge JC, Cushman M, Dobs A, et al. Depressive symptoms and risks of coronary heart disease and mortality in elderly Americans. Circulation 2000;102:1773-9.
67. Cassem NH, Hackett TP. Psychiatric condition in a coronary care unit. Ann Intern Medicine 1971;75:9-14.
68. Carney RM, Freedland KE, Sheline YI, Weiss ES. Depression and coronary heart disease: a review for cardiologists. Clin Cardiol 1997;20:196-200.
69. Katon W, Schulberg H. Epidemiology of depression in primary care. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1992;14:237-47.
70. Wulsin LR, Vaillant GE, Wells VE. A systematic review of the mortality of depression. Psychosom Med 1999;61:6-17.
71. Schulz R, Drayer RA, Rollman BL. Depression as a risk factor for non-suicide mortality in the elderly. Biol Psychiatry 2002;52:205-25.
72. Ladwig KH, Roll G, Breithardt G, Budde T, Borggrefe M. Post-infarction depression and incomplete recovery 6 months after acute myocardial infarction. Lancet 1994;343:20-3.
73. Critchley JA, Capewell S. Mortality risk reduction associated with smoking cessation in patients with coronary heart disease. JAMA 2003;290:86-97.
74. Van de Mheen PT, Gunning-Schepers LJ. Differences between studies in reported relative risks associated with smoking: an overview. Public Health Rep 1996;111:420-6.
75. Office of the Surgeon General. The health consequences of smoking: cardiovascular disease. Rockville, MD: Department of Health & Human Services, 1983.
76. He J, Vupputuri S, Allen K, Prerost MR, Hughes J, Whelton PK. Passive smoking and the risk of coronary heart disease-a meta-analysis of epidemiologic studies. N Engl J Med 1999;340:920-6.
77. DerSimonian R, Laird N. Meta-analysis in controlled clinical trials. Control Clin Trials 1986;7:177-88.
78. Fleiss JL, Gross AJ. Meta-analysis in epidemiology, with special reference to studies of the association between exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and lung cancer. J Clin Epidemiol 1991;44:127-39.
79. Gaver J, Draper D, Goel P, Hedges L, Morris C, Waternaux C. Combining information: statistical issues and opportunities for research. Washington, DC: National Research Council, 1992.
80. Murphy JM, Monson RR, Olivier DC, Leighton AH, Sobol AM. Affective disorders and mortality. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1987;44:473-80.
81. Murphy E, Smith R, Lindesay J, Slattery J. Increased mortality rates in late-life depression. Br J Psychiatry 1988;152:347-53.
82. Freedland KE, Rich MW, Skala JA, Carney RM, Davila-Roman VG, Jaffe AS. Prevalence of depression in hospitalized patients with congestive heart failure. Psychosom Med 2003;65:119-28.
83. Jonas BS, Mussolino ME. Symptoms of depression as a prospective risk factor for stroke. Psychosom Med 2000;62:463-71.
84. Rutledge T, Hogan BE. A quantitative review of prospective evidence linking psychological factors with hypertension development. Psychosom Med 2002;64:758-66.
85. Blumenthal JA, O'Connor C, Hinderliter A, Fath K, Hegde SB, Miller G, et al. Psychosocial factors and coronary disease: a national multicenter clinical trial (ENRICHD) with a North Carolina focus. N C Med J 1997;58:440-4.
86. Frasure-Smith N, Lesperance F. Depression and other psychological risks following myocardial infarction. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2003;60:627-36.
87. Allison TG, Williams DE, Miller TD, Patten CA, Bailey KR, Squires RW, et al. Medical and economic costs of psychologic distress in patients with coronary artery disease. Mayo Clin Proc 1995;70:734-42.
88. Denollet J, Brutsaert DL. Personality, disease severity, and the risk of long-term cardiac events in patients with a decreased ejection fraction after myocardial infarction. Circulation 1998;97:167-73.
89. Denollet J. Reducing emotional distress improves prognosis in coronary heart disease. Circulation 2001;104:2018-23.
90. Wulsin L. A review of the evidence for a dose response relationship between depression and coronary disease. Psychosom Med 2001;63:174-5.
91. Consoli S, Guize L, Ducimetiere P, Lomon I, Pompidou G. Depressive mood and/or phobic anxiety as risk factors for death in a cohort of coronary patients suffering from angina pectoris. Psychosom Med 2001;63:184.
92. Carney RM, Freedland KE, Stein PK, Skala JA, Hoffman P, Jaffe A. Change in heart rate and heart rate variability during treatment for depression in patients with coronary heart disease. Psychosom Med 2000;62:639-47.
93. Sloan RP, Shapiro PA, Bagiella E, Myers MM, Gorman JM. Cardiac autonomic control buffers blood pressure variability responses to challenge: a psychophysiologic model of coronary artery disease. Psychosom Med 1999;61:58-68.
94. Alexopoulos GS, Meyers BS, Young RC, Campbell S, Silbersweig D, Charlson M. Vascular depression hypothesis. Psychosom Med 1997;58:113-21.
95. Knox SS. Psychosocial stress and the physiology of atherosclerosis. Adv Psychosom Med 2001;22:139-51.
96. Ghiadoni L, Donald AE, Cropley M, Mullen MJ, Oakley G, Taylor M, et al. Mental stress induces transient endothelial dysfunction in humans. Circulation 2000:2473-8.
97. Harris CW, Edwards JL, Baruch A, Riley WA, Pusser BE, Rejeski WJ, et al. Effects of mental stress on brachial artery flow-mediated vasodilation in healthy normal individuals. Am Heart J 2000;139:405-11.
98. Harris K, Matthews K, Sutton-Tyrrell K, Kuller L. Associations between psychosocial characteristics and endothelial function in postmenopausal women. Psychosom Med 2001;63:185-6.
99. Appels A, Bar FW, Bar J, Bruggeman C, De Baets M. Inflammation, depressive symptomatology, and coronary artery disease. Psychosom Med 2000;62:601-5.
100. Palatini P, Julius S. The physiological determinants and risk correlations of elevated heart rate. Am J Hypertens 1999;12:3S-8S.
101. Julius S, Palatini P, Nesbitt SD. Tachycardia: an important determinant of coronary risk in hypertension. J Hypertens 1998;16(supp 11):S9-15.
102. Schatzberg AF, Schildkraut JJ. Recent studies on norepinephrine systems in mood disorders. In: Bloom F, Kupfer DJ, eds. Psychopharmacology: the fourth generation of progress. New York: Raven, 1995.
103. Miller GE, Cohen S, Herbert TB. Pathways linking major depression and immunity in ambulatory female patients. Psychosom Med 1999;61:850-60.
104. Blumenthal J, DeBusk R, Kaufmann P, Powell L, Saab P, Schneiderman N. Symposium: the Enhancing Recovery in Coronary Heart Disease (ENRICHD) trial: results and implications. Psychosom Med 2002;64:97-8.
105. Berkman LF, Blumenthal J, Burg M, Carney RM, Catellier D, Cowan MJ. Effects of treating depression and low perceived social support on clinical events after myocardial infarction: the Enhancing Recovery in Coronary Heart Disease Patients (ENRICHD) Randomized Trial. JAMA 2003;289:3106-16.
106. Glassman AH, O'Connor CM, Califf RM, Swedeberg K, Schwartz P, Bigger JT Jr, et al. Sertraline treatment of major depression in patients with acute MI or unstable angina. JAMA 2002;288:701-9.
107. Cohen HW, Madhavan S, Alderman MH. History of treatment for depression: risk factor for myocardial infarction in hypertensive patients. Psychosom Med 2001;63:203-9.
108. Cohen H, Gibson G, Alderman M. Excess risk of myocardial infarction in patients treated with antidepressant medications: association with use of tricyclic agents. Am J Med 2000;108:2-8.
109. Avery D, Winokur G. Mortality in depressed patients treated with electroconvulsive therapy and antidepressants. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1976;33:1029-37.
110. Babigian HM, Guttmacher LB. Epidemiologic considerations in electroconvulsive therapy. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1984;41:246-53.
111. Weeke A, Juel K, Vaeth M. Cardiovascular death and manic-depressive psychosis. J Affect Disord 1987;13:287-92.
112. Vestergaard P, Aagaard J. Five-year mortality in lithium-treated manic-depressive patients. J Affect Disord 1991;21:33-8.
113. Linden W, Stossel C, Maurice J. Psychosocial interventions for patients with coronary artery disease. Arch Intern Med 1996;156:745-52.
114. Kroenke K, West SL, Swindle R, Gilsenan A, Eckert GJ, Dolor R, et al. Similar effectiveness of paroxetine, fluoxetine, and sertraline in primary care. JAMA 2001;286:2947-55.
115. Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JB. Validity of a brief depression severity measure. J Gen Intern Med 2001;16:606-13.
116. Spitzer RL, Kroenke K, Williams JB. Patient Health Questionnaire Study Group. Validity and utility of a self-report version of PRIME MD: the PHQ Primary Care Study. JAMA 1999;282:1737-44.