The Meiji Restoration (1868) and the Late Qing Reform (1898) revisited: Strategies and philosophies

East Asia

Volumn 21, Issue 3, 2004, Pages 3-22

  Hua, Shiping ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LOUISVILLE   (United States)

^b WOODROW WILSON INTERNATIONAL CENTER FOR SCHOLARS   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE; REFORM PROCESS;

ASIA; EASTERN HEMISPHERE; EURASIA; FAR EAST; WORLD;

EID: 23144466298     PISSN: 10966838     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s12140-004-0020-0     Document Type: Review

References (125)

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7. "Far from an informed reformer, he (Kang) knew very little about the west, limited as his knowledge was to the few phrases that he could glean from published Chinese writings." Luke S.K. Kwong, "Chinese Politics at the Crossroads: Reflections on the Hundred Days Reform of 1898," 670.
8. Theda Skocpol and Margaret Sommers, "The Uses of Comparative History in Macrosocial Inquiry," Comparative Studies in Society and History, 1980, 22:174-197.
9. Ben Schwartz, "Why did Japan 'make it' during the Meiji period, whereas China in the late 19th century did not?"
10. See Stuart R. Schram, "To Utopia and Back: A Cycle in the History of the Chinese Communist Party," The China Quarterly, No. 87 (September 1981), 408.
11. Also, Li Qingting, "Mingzhi weixin yu Wuxu bianfa chengbai yinyou zhi bijiao" (Comparing the Meiji Restoration with the Late Qing Reform to seek to understand why one was a success, the other was a failure).
12. John Schrecker, "The Reform Movement of 1898 and the Meiji Restoration as Ch'ing-I Movement," Akira Iriye The Chinese and the Japanese: Essays in Political and Cultural Interactions, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980).
13. George M. Wilson, "Plots and Motives in Japan's Meiji Restoration," 407-427.
14. Shiping Hua, "Political Cultures," Encyclopedia of Government and Politics, 2nd edition, Mary Hawkesworth and Maurice Koga, eds., London: Routledge, 2004, 491-501.
15. For a good discussion of the pre-modern Chinese social structure, see Jin Guantao and Liu Qingfeng, Xingsheng yu weiji - lun zhongguo fengjian shehui de chao wending jiegou (Prosperity and crisis - on the ultra stable system of China's feudal system) (Changsha, China: Hunan renmin chubanshe, 1983).
16. Tang Zhijun, Wuxiu zhenbian shi (A history of the hundred day reform in 1898) (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1984), 4-10.
17. Marius B. Jansen, "The Meiji restoration," 308-313.
18. Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Outline of a Theory of Civilization, translated by David A. Dilworth and G. Cameron Hurst (Tokyo: Sophia University, 1973), 143-144.
19. Carol Gluck, Japan's Modern Myths: Ideology in the Late Meiji Period (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985), 27.
20. Conrad Totman, The Collapse of the Tokugawa Bakufu 1862-1868 (Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press, 1980), 190.
21. Marius B. Jansen, "The Meiji restoration," in Marius B. Jansen, ed. The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 5. The Nineteenth Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 215.
22. Carol Gluck, Japan's Modern Myths: Ideology in the Late Meiji Period, 31.
23. Ibid., 11-15.
24. Takashi Koizumi, "Fukuzawa Yukichi and Religion," Asian Philosophy, 1994, Vol. 4, Issue 2, 109.
25. Albert Craig, "Preface to Library of Japan Edition," in Fukuzawa Yukichi, The Autobiography of Fukuzawa Yukichi (New York: Madison Books, 1992), vii.
26. David Dilworth and Umeyo Hirano in "Introduction" to An Encouragement of Learning by Fukuzawa Yukichi, translated with Introduction by David A. Dilworth and Umeyo Hirano (Tokyo: Sophia University, 1969), x.
27. Ibid., xi.
28. Li Sizhen, "Kang Youwei yu Datongshu," (Kang Youwei and Datongshu) in Kang Youwei Datongshu: Chuantong waiyi xia de jinshi lixiang guo (Datongshu: Modern utopia wrapped up in traditions) edited by Li Sizhen (Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou guji chubanshe, 1998), 5.
29. Lin Daizhao, etc., Zhongguo Jindai Zhengzhi Zhidushi (A History of Modern China's Political System) (Chongqing, China: Chongqing chubanshe, 1988), 166.
30. Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Encouragement of Learning, translated with Introduction by David A. Dilworth and Umeyo Hirano (Tokyo: Sophia University, 1969), 65.
31. Kang Youwei, Kang Youwei Quanji (Works of Kang Youwei) edited by Jiang Yihua and Wu Genliang, (Shanghai: Guji chubanshe, 1990), Vol. II, 33-36.
32. Kang Youwei, "Shang qingdi di er shu," "Second Letter of Appeal to the Emperor," in Kang Youwei Quanji,, Vol. II, 75.
33. Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Encouragement of Learning, translated with Introduction by David A. Dilworth and Umeyo Hirano (Tokyo: Sophia University, 1969), 65.
34. Li Sizhen, "Kang Youwei yu Datongshu," (Kang Youwei and Datongshu), 2.
35. Hao, Chang, "Intellectual Change and the Reform Movement, 1890-8," in Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank, eds., The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 11: Late Ch'ing, 1800-1911 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 384.
36. Kang Youwei, "Shanghai Qiangxuehue hou xu," (Shanghai Strengthening China Society Constitution) in Kang Youwei Quanji (Works of Kang Youwei), Vol. II, 194.
37. Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Outline of a Theory of Civilization, 107.
38. Zhang Yanru, Zou Xiaoxiang, "Lun Riben Mingzhi Chuqi de Qimengsixiang," (On the Enlightenment Thought of Early Japanese Meiji Period), Riben Wenti Yanjiu, (Japan Studies) No. 122, 2002, 53-59, (Beijing).
39. Carol Gluck, Japan's Modern Myths: Ideology in the Late Meiji Period, 18.
40. Marius B. Jansen, "The Meiji restoration," in Marius B. Jansen, ed. The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 5, 312.
41. Hao Chang, "Intellectual Change and the Reform Movement, 1890-8," 276.
42. Kang Youwei, "Kongzi gaizhi," (Confucius' Reform) in Kang Youwei Quanji (Works of Kang Youwei) edited by Jiang Yihua and Wu Genliang, (Shanghai: Guji chubanshe, 1990), Vol. II, 293.
43. Ibid., 298.
44. Ibid., 295.
45. Ibid., 345.
46. Lin Keguang, Lun Da Tong Shu (On Da Tong Shu) (Beijing: Sanlian shudian, 1957).
47. Hao Chang, "Intellectual Change and the Reform Movement, 1890-8," 274-338.
48. Luke S.K. Kwong, "Chinese Politics at the Crossroads: Reflections on the Hundred Days Reform of 1898," 672.
49. Cited in Lin Daizhao, et al., Zhongguo Jindai Zhengzhi Zhidushi (A History of Modern China's Political System) (Chongqing, China: Chongqing Chubanshe, 1988), 176.
50. Kung-Chuan Hsiao, A Modern China and a New World: K'ang Yu-wei, Reformer and Utopian, 1858-1927 (Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 1975), 481.
51. Lin Daizhao, et al., Zhongguo Jindai Zhengzhi Zhidushi (A History of Modern China's Political System), 178.
52. David Philing, "Two Giants of Asia Must Find a New Way of Co-Existing," Financial Times, April 5, 2004, 3.
53. Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Outline of a Theory of Civilization, 18.
54. See Luke S. K. Kwong, "The Ti-Yung Dichotomy and the Search for Talent in Late-Ch'ing China," Modern Asian Studies, 27, 2 (1993), 253-279.
55. Shiping Hua Scientism and Humanism: Two Cultures in Post-Mao China (1978-1989) (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1995).
56. Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Outline of a Theory of Civilization, 15.
57. Kang Youwei, Datongshu: Chuantong waiyi xia de jinshi lixiang guo (Datongshu: Modern utopia wrapped up in traditions).
58. Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Outline of a Theory of Civilization, 17.
59. "From teachings about knowledge and morality down to government, economics and the minute details of daily life, there are none who do not propose emulation of the ways of the west.... How superficial they are in uncritically believing things western and doubting things Eastern." Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Encouragement of Learning, 95.
60. Frank Gibney, "The Great Teacher Fukuzawa," Mark Borthwick, The Pacific Century: The Emergence of Modern Pacific Asia (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1998), 133.
61. Fukuzawa Yukichi, The Autobiography of Fukuzawa Yukichi (New York: Madison Books, 1992), 135.
62. Li Sizhen, "Kang Youwei yu Datongshu," (Kang Youwei and Datongshu) in Kang Youwei Datongshu: Chuantong waiyi xia de jinshi lixiang guo (Datongshu: Modern utopia wrapped up in traditions), 17.
63. Li Zehou, "Lun Kang Youwei de Datongshu," (On Kang Youwei's Tatongshu) Wen, Shi, Zhe, 2nd issue, 1955.
64. Kung-Chuan Hsiao, A Modern China and a New World: K'ang Yu-wei, Reformer and Utopian, 1858-1927, 481.
65. Mao Tsetung, Selected Works of Mao Tsetung, Vol. V (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1977), 284-307.
66. Li Sizhen, "Kang Youwei yu Datongshu," 24.
67. Ibid., 27-28.
68. The authenticity of Datong to Confucius was called into question first by Kong Yingda in Tang Dynasty, Chen Hao and Huang Zhen in Song dynasty. The idea of Datong was attributed to Lao Zi and Mo. See Jiang Jianshe Zhou qin shidai lixiangguo tansuo (Exploring for utopias during the Zhou and Qin periods) (Zhengzhou, Henan: Zhong zhou guji chubanshe, 1998), 204.
69. It was also believed that the real author was one of those Confucians who lived between Qin and Han. "Li Yun" was born under the influence of the peasant rebellions at the end of the Qin dynasty. See Zhongguo zhexueshi ziliao jianbian (A Short Collection of the History of Chinese Philosophy) (Zhonghua shujiu, 1962).
70. Cited in Le Nong, Lixiang guo de tan qiu - Zhongguo datong sixiang shihua (Seeking Utopia - Datong in Chinese Thought) (Zhengzhou: Henan renmin chubanshe, 1981), 14. This author tends to believe that Datong was Confucian. Those who questioned the authenticity of Datong to Confucius based their judgment on the tone of the text, not empirical evidence. In addition, for the purpose of this study, my main interest is that Datong originated from the Chinese traditional thought, whether it belonged to Confucius, or Lao Zi, or Mo Jia, in comparison with the Japanese traditional thought.
71. For the translation, see W.T. de Bary, ed., Sources of Chinese Tradition, Volume 1, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1960), 176.
72. Kang Youwei, Datongshu: Chuantong waiyi xia de jinshi lixiang guo (Datongshu: Modern utopia wrapped up in traditions).
73. He gave up the ideas, because the blueprint depicted in Da Tong Shu differs from Western utopias in the sense that Kang's Grand Harmony is realizable. Laurence G. Thompson in K'ang Yu-wei Ta T'ung Shu: The One-World Philosophy of K'ang Yu-wei), 30.
74. Kang Youwei, Li-yun chu, 2b-4a. Cited in Kung-Chuan Hsiao A Modern China and a New World: K'ang Yu-wei, Reformer and Utopian, 1858-1927, 499.
75. Li Sizhen, "Kang Youwei yu Datongshu," (Kang Youwei and Datongshu), 25.
76. Liao Yuren, Ruhe jiasu sanminzhuyi quanmian dengshang dalu," (How to quicken the process during which the Three Principles of the People Conquer Mainland China) in Qi Fang, Heping Yanbian zhanlue de chanseng jiqi fazhan (The Origin and Development of the Strategy of Peaceful Restoration of Capitalism) (Beijing: Dengfang chubanshe, 1990), 197.
77. Li Sizhen, "Kang Youwei yu Datongshu," 20.
78. Thomas A. Metzger, "Modern Chinese Utopianism and the Western Concept of the Civil Society," in Kuo T'ing-I hsien sheng 9 chih tan ch'en chi nien lun wen chi: hsia ts'e (Taipei: Chung Yang yen chiu yuan chin tai shih yen chiu so fa hsing, 1995), 300, 305.
79. Li Sizhen, "Kang Youwei yu Datongshu," 23-24.
80. Jerome Chen, Michael Bullock, Mao and the Chinese Revolution (London: Oxford University Press, 1965), 338-9.
81. Harry D. Harootunian, "The Function of China in Tokugawa Thought," in Akira Iriye ed., The Chinese and the Japanese: Essays in Political and Cultural Interactions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980), 21.
82. Ibid., 23.
83. Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Encouragement of Learning, translated with Introduction by David A. Dilworth and Umeyo Hirano (Tokyo: Sophia University, 1969), 71.
84. Pacific Basin Institute, "Reinventing Japan," in The Pacific Century, The Annenberg/CPB Collection (Seattle, WA: Pacific Basin Institute, 1992), part 5.
85. Ibid., part 4.
86. Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Outline of a Theory of Civilization, 21-22.
87. Ibid., 22.
88. Yusheng Lin, The Crisis of Chinese Consciousness: Radical Antitraditionalism in the May Fourth Era (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1979).
89. Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Outline of a Theory of Civilization, 21-22.
90. Tsuda Sokichi, "Preface" to Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Outline of a Theory of Civilization, translated by David A. Dilworth and G. Cameron Hurst (Tokyo: Sophia University, 1973), xv.
91. Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Outline of a Theory of Civilization, 6.
92. Ibid., 9.
93. Tsuda Sokichi, "Preface" to Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Outline of a Theory of Civilization, translated by David A. Dilworth and G. Cameron Hurst (Tokyo: Sophia University, 1973), xviii.
94. Hiroko Willcock, Traditional Learning, Western Thought, and the Sapporo Agricultural College: A Case Study of Acculturation in Early Meiji Japan Modern Asian Studies (2000), 34:977-1017.
95. Donald W. Treadgold, The West in Russia and China, Vol. 2: China 1582-1949 (New York: Cambridge University Press 1973), 174-5.
96. Kang Youwei, "Chunqiu Dong Shi Xue," (Dong Zhongshu on Chunqiu Period) in Kang Youwei Quanji (Works of Kang Youwei) edited by Jiang Yihua and Wu Genliang, (Shanghai: Guji Chubanshe, 1990), Vol. II, 827-8.
97. Mencius, Translated with an Introduction by D.C. Lau (New York: Penguin Books, 1970), 169.
98. K'ang Yu-wei, Ta T'ung Shu: The One-World Philosophy of K'ang Yu-wei (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1958), 216.
99. Ibid., 214-6.
100. Thomas A. Metzger, "Modern Chinese Utopianism and the Western Concept of the Civil Society," 300-305.
101. Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Outline of a Theory of Civilization, 80-81.
102. Plato, The Republic (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1985).
103. Zhang Yanru, Zou Xiaoxiang "Lun Riben Mingzhi Chuqi de Qimengsixing," (On the Enlightenment Thought of Early Japanese Meiji Period), 53-59.
104. Kang Youwei, Kang Youwei Datongshu: Chuantong waiyi xia de jinshi lixiang guo (Datongshu: Modern utopia wrapped up in traditions edited by Li Sizhen, (Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou Guji Chubanshe, 1998), 79.
105. Mencius, Translated with an Introduction by D.C. Lau (New York: Penguin Books, 1970).
106. Edward X. Gu, "Who was Mr. Democracy? The May Fourth Discourse of Populist Democracy and the Radicalization of Chinese Intellectuals (1915-1922)," Modern Asian Studies, 35, 3 (2001), 589-621.
107. Jin Guantao and Liu Qingfeng, Xingsheng yu weiji - lun zhongguo fengjian shehui de chao wenting jiegou (Prosperity and Crisis - on the Ultra stable system of China's feudal system) (Changsha, China: Hunan renmin chubanshe, 1983), 115-6.
108. Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Outline of a Theory of Civilization, 6.
109. Tsuda Sokichi, "Preface" to Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Outline of a Theory of Civilization, translated by David A. Dilworth and G. Cameron Hurst (Tokyo: Sophia University, 1973), xvii.
110. Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Encouragement of Learning, translated with Introduction by David A. Dilworth and Umeyo Hirano (Tokyo: Sophia University, 1969), 22.
111. Charles Hauss, Comparative Politics: Domestic Responses to Global Challenges, 4th edition (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2003), 198.
112. Tsuda Sokichi, "Preface" to Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Outline of a Theory of Civilization, translated by David A. Dilworth and G. Cameron Hurst (Tokyo: Sophia University, 1973), xiv.
113. Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Encouragement of Learning, 116.
114. Douglas Howland, "Society Reified: Herbert Spencer and Political Theory in Early Meiji Japan," Comparative Studies in Society and History (2000), 42:67-86.
115. Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Encouragement of Learning, translated with Introduction by David A. Dilworth and Umeyo Hirano (Tokyo: Sophia University, 1969), 2, and 105-9.
116. Ibid., 76.
117. Also, Tsuda Sokichi, "Preface" to Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Outline of a Theory of Civilization, xiv.
118. Fukuzawa Yukichi, An Encouragement of Learning, 9.
119. Ibid., 2, 76.
120. Zhang Yanru, Zou Xiaoxiang "Lun Riben Mingzhi Chuqi de Qimengsixing," (On the Enlightenment Thought of Early Japanese Meiji Period). Riben Wenti Yanjiu, (Japan Studies) No. 122, 2002, 53-59, Beijing.
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124. Kang Youwei, Datongshu (Grand Reunion) edited by Li Sizhen, (Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou Guji Chubanshe, 1998), 110-111.
125. Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1962).