A genealogy of peacemaking: The creation and re-creation of order

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Volumn 26, Issue 3, 2001, Pages 317-348

  Richmond, Oliver P ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ST ANDREWS   (United Kingdom)

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EID: 23044530176     PISSN: 03043754     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/030437540102600304     Document Type: Article

References (83)

1. Andrew Linklater has noted that a post-Westphalian order, which he frames as dialogic, overcomes the obstruction that sovereignty, territoriality, and citizenship have created for this "universal communication community" - which has important implications, I argue, for the practice of ending conflict. See Andrew Linklater, The Transformation of Political Community (Columbia: U of South Carolina P, 1998), p. 168.
2. Michel Foucault, "What Is Enlightenment?" in P. Rabinow, ed., The Foucault Reader (London: Penguin, 1989), p. 46. My intention is not to provide a historical genealogy but to view the development of contemporary theories of ending conflict through a genealogical lens in order to uncover their relationship with truth and power in terms of the replication of a particular version of world order.
3. For a more comprehensive review, see Oliver P. Richmond, Maintaining Order, Making Peace (London: Palgrave, 2001).
4. This point draws on the English school's, and in particular Hedley Bull's, argument about discussion of the existence of an international society, despite the tendencies of states to follow their national interests. Hedley Bull, The Anarchic Society: A Study of Order in World Politics (London: Macmillan, 1977);
5. see also R. J. Vincent, Human Rights and International Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1986).
6. See, for example, Andrew Linklater and John Macmillan, Boundaries in Question (London: Frances Pinter, 1995), p. 5.
7. Oliver P. Richmond, Mediating in Cyprus: The Cypriot Communities and the UN (London: Cass, 1998).
8. See Thomas Princen, Intermediaries in International Conflict (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton UP, 1992).
9. Richard Holbrooke, To End a War (New York: Random House, 1998).
10. See, for example, Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States, article 1, 1933.
11. By status-quo diplomacy I mean diplomatic activity aimed at preserving fragile military status quos, with little regard for factors of human security or justice.
12. It must be pointed out that the term citizen tends to be used by conflict resolutionists in its state context.
13. J. Burton, "The History of Conflict Resolution," in J. Burton and E. A. Azar, eds., International Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice (Brighton, UK: Wheatsheaf, 1986), p. 45.
14. The mainstream assertion that nonstate conflicts tend to be subjective of course implies that conflicts between states - over historical borders and territory, for example - are not subjective, although a serious examination of many "state" conflicts reveals the fallaciousness of such an assertion.
15. Johan Galtung, Peace by Peaceful Means: Peace and Conflict, Development, and Civilization (London: Sage, 1996), p. viii.
16. Peace by Peaceful Means: Peace and Conflict, Development, and Civilization Ibid., p. 72.
17. See Hugh Miall, Oliver Ramsbotham, and Tom Woodhouse, Contemporary Conflict Resolution (Cambridge: Polity, 1999), p. 15.
18. E. A. Azar, "Protracted International Conflicts: Ten Propositions," in Burton and Azar, note 12, p. 29.
19. H. Miall, ed., The Peacemakers (Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1992), pp. 234-237.
20. J. Burton and F. Dukes, Conflict: Practices in Management and Settlement (Fairfax, Va.: George Mason University, Center for Conflict Management and Resolution, 1990), p. 85.
21. J. Burton, Conflict and Communication (London: Macmillan, 1969), p. 161.
22. Burton and Dukes, note 19, p. 145.
23. Kumar Rupesinghe, "Conflict Transformation," in Rupesinghe, ed., Conflict Transformation (London: Macmillan, 1995), pp. 75-76.
24. Dov Ronen, "Human Needs and the State," in Ho-Won Jeong, ed., The New Agenda for Peace Research (Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1999), pp. 261-263.
25. See Louis Kriesberg, Terrell A. Northrup, and Stuart J. Thorson, eds., Intractable Conflicts and Their Transformation (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse UP, 1989), p. 57.
26. Edward E. Azar, The Management of Protracted Social Conflict (Hampshire, UK: Dartmouth, 1990), pp. 10-12.
27. The Management of Protracted Social Conflict Ibid., p. 7.
28. The Management of Protracted Social Conflict Ibid., p. 9.
29. The Management of Protracted Social Conflict Ibid., p. 155.
30. D. Jones, Cosmopolitan Mediation (Manchester: U of Manchester P, 1999), p. 3.
31. Jones has argued from a postpositivist and cosmopolitan perspective that mediators should be charged with normative goals relating to enlarging the boundaries of political community and moral responsibility, overcoming divisions, leading to international order based on democratically constructed international law; Cosmopolitan Mediation ibid., p. 2.
32. Latin in the section heading translates as, "Who shall guard the guardians?"; see Thomas G. Weiss, David P. Forsythe, and Roger A. Coate, The United Nations and Changing World Politics (Boulder: Westview, 1997), p. 143.
33. Miall, Ramsbotham, and Woodhouse, note 16, p. 22.
34. Kriesberg, Northrup, and Thorson, note 24, p. 57.
35. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Peace (New York: United Nations, 1995).
36. For a development of this line of thought, see Francois Debrix, Re-Envisioning UN Peacekeeping (Minnesota: U of Minnesota P, 1999), p. 56.
37. Here it is important to note that the coordination of such strategies may be problematic. Initially, space must be made for diverse peacemaking actors to become involved independently, even though they may recognize common basic goals.
38. UN Charter, para. 55.
39. Ibid., para. 84.
40. Stephen Ryan, "United Nations Peacekeeping: A Matter of Principles," in Tom Woodhouse and Oliver Ramsbotham, Peacekeeping and Conflict Resolution (London: Cass, 2000), p. 31. Ryan argues that Agenda was too broad and PDD-25 too narrow.
41. Kofi Annan, cited by Philip Wilkinson, "Sharpening the Weapons of Peace: Peace Support Operations and Complex Emergencies," in Woodhouse and Ramsbotham, note 38, p. 63.
42. Michael S. Lund, Preventing Violent Conflicts (Washington, D.C.: USIP, 1996), p. 87.
43. Preventing Violent Conflicts Ibid., pp. 178-180.
44. Robert Keohane, "International Institutions: Two Approaches," International Studies Quarterly 32, no. 4: 379-396.
45. S. Stedman, "Alchemy for a New World Order: Overselling 'Preventative Diplomacy,'" Foreign Affairs 74 (May-June 1995): 14-20;
46. Raimo Vayrynen, "Preventing Deadly Conflicts: Failures in Iraq and Yugoslavia," Global Society 14, no. 1 (2000): 31.
47. Vayrynen, note 43, p. 32.
48. Cited by Miall, Ramsbotham, and Woodhouse, note 16, p. 114.
49. Jarat Chopra, "The Space of Peace Maintenance," Political Geography 15, nos. 3/4 (1996): 338.
50. Political Geography Ibid., pp. 353-354.
51. J. Lederach, Building Peace - Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies (Tokyo: United Nations UP, 1997), p. 39.
52. Building Peace - Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies Ibid., pp. 60-61.
53. For further discussion of critical approaches to global order, see Linklater, note 1; Linklater and Macmillan, note 5; David Held, Democracy and the Global Order (Cambridge: Polity, 1995);
54. Steve Smith, Ken Booth, and Marysia Zalewski, International Theory: Positivism and Beyond (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1996);
55. Mervyn Frost, Ethics in International Relations: A Constitutive Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1996);
56. Mervyn Frost, "A Turn Not Taken: Ethics in IR at the Millennium," Review of International Studies 24 (special issue; December 1998);
57. Gene M. Lyons and Michael Mastunduno, eds., Beyond Westphalia (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1995).
58. Vivienne Jabri, Discourses on Violence: Conflict Analysis Reconsidered (Manchester: Manchester UP, 1996), p. 4.
59. Discourses on Violence: Conflict Analysis Reconsidered Ibid. p. 7.
60. See, for example, Debrix, note 34, p. 91.
61. See Richard Ashley, "The Geopolitics of Geopolitical Space: Towards a Critical Social Theory of International Politics," Alternatives 12, no. 4 (1987).
62. Danilo Zolo, Cosmopolis: Prospects for World Government (Cambridge: Polity, 1997), pp. 14-15.
63. Cosmopolis: Prospects for World Government Ibid., p. 128.
64. This, of course, could also be interpreted as the antihegemonic hegemony.
65. Andrew Linklater, "The Achievements of Critical Theory," in Smith, Booth, and Zalewski, note 50, p. 288.
66. Mark A. Neufeld, The Restructuring of International Relations Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1995), p. 125.
67. Jabri, note 51, p. 150.
68. Ibid., p. 181.
69. Miall, Ramsbotham, and Woodhouse, note 16, p. 59.
70. Robert Cox with T. Sinclair, Approaches to World Order (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1996), p. 88.
71. Linklater, note 1, p. 16; see also Christopher Farrands, "Language and the Possibility of Inter-community Understanding," Global Society 14, no. 1 (2000).
72. Linklater, note 1, p. 24.
73. Ibid., p. 34.
74. Ibid., p. 51.
75. A. B. Fetherston, "Peacekeeping, Conflict Resolution, and Peacebuilding: A Reconsideration of Atheoretical Frameworks," in Woodhouse and Ramsbotham, note 38, p. 192.
76. Peacekeeping, Conflict Resolution, and Peacebuilding: A Reconsideration of Atheoretical Frameworks Ibid., p. 192.
77. Peacekeeping, Conflict Resolution, and Peacebuilding: A Reconsideration of Atheoretical Frameworks Ibid., p. 194.
78. Peacekeeping, Conflict Resolution, and Peacebuilding: A Reconsideration of Atheoretical Frameworks Ibid., p. 195.
79. Dunane Bratt has argued that the United Nations placed peace over justice in the Charter (peace, article 1:1; justice, article 1:3) and needs to continue to do so to avoid the specter of imperialism. Dunane Bratt, "Peace over Justice: Developing a Framework for UN Peacekeeping Operations in Internal Conflicts," in Global Governance 5, no. 1 (1995): 63-66.
80. For a groundbreaking contribution to this debate, see Fetherston, note 68, pp. 208-214.
81. Stephen Hopgood, "Reading the Small Print in Global Civil Society," Millennium 29, no. 1 (2000): 23.
82. Millennium Ibid., p. 11;
83. see also Beate Jahn, "One Step Forward, Two Steps Back: Critical Theory as the Latest Edition of Liberal Idealism," Millennium 27, no. 3 (1998): 641.